seven_nana 发表于 2021-5-22 20:45

日德兰纪念系列 - 战略战术篇 - 第二章 - 战术指挥

本帖最后由 seven_nana 于 2023-3-5 21:53 编辑

前言

1916年5月31日下午,英国海军的大舰队与德国海军的公海舰队,在北海东部、靠近丹麦及挪威的区域相遇,随即爆发了一场规模庞大的海战。双方交战的区域,从陆上来说临近日德兰半岛,而从海上来说临近丹麦与挪威之间的斯卡格拉克海峡,因此分别被参战双方称之为日德兰海战(英方叫法)和斯卡格拉克海峡海战(德方叫法)。这场海战是整个第一次世界大战中规模最大的海战,同时也是有史以来规模最大的以战列舰为主力的海战。

关于这场海战的前因后果,各国学者们早就发表了无数的研究文章和专著,其中既有研究战略战术的,也有研究技术细节的。在本篇中,我将结合各类参考资料,对日德兰海战相关的战略与战术话题,进行简明的介绍。希望能通过这篇内容,帮助各位读者更好地理解日德兰海战的全貌。


索引

第一章 - 战略规划

此章介绍了一战时期的英德两国海军的战略规划,并重点介绍了英国海军的对德封锁策略,以及德国海军的应对措施。

第二章 - 战术指挥

此章介绍了一战时期的英德两国海军的战术指挥方式,对当时的舰队是如何编组,如何通讯,如何与对方交战等话题进行了具体讲解。

第三章 - 战场决策

此章介绍了日德兰海战的具体过程,并对其中的关键节点上的决策得失,进行了评论。

第四章 - 后续影响

此章介绍了英德两国海军,在日德兰海战后所作出的调整与改变。

seven_nana 发表于 2021-5-22 20:51

本帖最后由 seven_nana 于 2023-2-18 14:50 编辑

日德兰纪念系列 - 战略战术篇 - 第二章 - 战术指挥

本帖内容未经允许不得转载

主要参考资料:

From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, Volume I, The Road to War, 1904-1914, 作者Arthur J. Marder

From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, Volume III, Jutland and After, May to December 1916, 作者Arthur J. Marder

Expectation, Adaptation, and Resignation - British Battle Fleet Tactical Planning, August 1914-April 1916,作者Jon Tetsuro Sumida

Battlelines and Fast Wings: Battlefleet Tactics in the Royal Navy, 1900-1914, 作者Stephen McLaughlin

Divide and Conquer? Divisional Tactics and the Battle of Jutland, 作者Stephen McLaughlin

Equal Speed Charlie London: Jellicoe’s Deployment at Jutland, 作者Stephen McLaughlin

Fighting the Great War at Sea - Strategy, Tactics and Technology, 作者Norman Friedman

Naval Weapons of World War One, 作者Norman Friedman

Sir John Fisher's Naval Revolution, 作者Nicholas A. Lambert

The Battle of Jutland, 作者John Brooks

在第一章 - 战略规划中,我们已经介绍了英德两国的海军战略,以及大战爆发至日德兰海战为止的双方实际交战情况。在这一章中,我们将对当时的水面舰队战术做出解读,从而帮助读者更好的理解第三章 - 战场决策中的内容。

一、队形与机动

出于便于指挥、便于机动、以及提高航行安全等目的,军舰通常不会随意分散在海面上,而是会组成某种队形来航行。在海军中,最为基本的战术单位队形,是纵队(Line Ahead)、横队(Line Abreast)、以及斜队(Line of Bearing)。

战术单位的基本队形

下图中,展示了一个4舰分队所能组成的基本队形:纵队、横队、斜队。

http://www.warships.com.cn/data/attachment/album/202105/23/105605aznurkt7z7kreplp.png

舰队队形及战列线战术

1. 在风帆时代,英国海军的标准战斗队形,是基于纵队构成的战列线。根据Arthur J. Marder的说法(From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, Volume I, The Road to War, 1904-1914, P.395):

The line-of-battle had been introduced in the middle of the seventeenth century to impose order and maintain cohesion in a fleet during battle. It formed part of the official Fighting Instructions and became by the middle of the eighteenth century an end in itself and almost sacrosanct.
战列线战术,最早可追溯至17世纪中期。采用这种战术的初始目的,是为了在海上交战中强调秩序,并维持凝聚力。后来,这种战术被写进了官方的战斗指示中。至18世纪中期时,战列线战术已经成为了一种几乎神圣不可侵犯的存在,以至于它已经不再只是一种海军战术手段,而是成为了目的本身。

2. 至铁甲舰时代,战列线曾一度让位于撞击战术,但在19世纪末时又得到了复兴。根据Stephen McLaughlin的说法(Battlelines and Fast Wings: Battlefleet Tactics in the Royal Navy, 1900-1914, P.3; Divide and Conquer? Divisional Tactics and the Battle of Jutland, P.1):

In the 1860s, when steam power, iron armour and the ram undermined the gun’s primacy. For almost three decades the close range ramming mêlée dominated tactical thought...By the 1880s the close-range ramming mêlée of the ironclad era was passing from the tactical scene as the gun once more became the primary weapon. In the late 1890s this trend led to a revival of the single line of battle - the line-ahead formation used during the sailing era.
至1860年代时,火炮的重要性,让位于蒸汽动力、铁甲、以及撞角,进而导致了战列线战术的式微。在此后的将近30年间,近距离交战及撞角肉搏成为了海军战术的核心。至1880年代时,铁甲舰时代的近距离撞角肉搏,逐渐退出了海军战术的舞台,而火炮则再度成为了军舰的主要武器。由于这个缘故,在1890年代后期时,风帆时代采用过的单列纵队的战列线,又再度得到了启用。

3. 至20世纪初时,英国海军的高级将领们,已经普遍认可了战列线战术的价值。根据Stephen McLaughlin的说法(Equal Speed Charlie London: Jellicoe’s Deployment at Jutland, P.1; Battlelines and Fast Wings: Battlefleet Tactics in the Royal Navy, 1900-1914, P.4-5):

In September 1901, Mediterranean and Channel fleets conducted a series of exercises that had a profound effect on British tactical thinking. In evaluating these manoeuvers, Vice-Admiral Arthur K. Wilson, commander of the Channel Fleet, wrote that ’the safest rule for taking a fleet into action is to form single line roughly at right angles to the bearing of the enemy before coming within effective range.’ By so doing, all one’s own guns could be brought to bear, no matter what formation or course the enemy was steering.
在1901年9月时,地中海舰队和海峡舰队举行了一系列的演习,这些演习对英国海军的战术思想造成了深远的影响。在评估这些演习时,海峡舰队司令亚瑟·威尔逊中将写道:“最为安全的做法,是在敌我双方进入有效射程之前,将本方舰队布置为一条大致垂直于敌人方位的单列纵队”。采用这种方式后,无论敌方采用何种队形,航向如何,我方都能将火炮有效指向敌舰。

Admiral Sir John Fisher, who served as chief umpire during the exercises, summed up another important conclusion drawn from the exercises: ‘The position of the Admiral in the line of Battle has also been solved in these exercises, and there is no doubt that he should be in the centre, because a single line being necessary he is then in the best position for communicating his orders to the rest of the Fleet.’ From the centre of the line, an admiral’s signals could be passed both up and down the line at the same time, considerably speeding up the process of getting a signal through to all the ships. Fisher went on to note another advantage of the central position: ‘it also obviates the risks run by the Admiral when occupying the position of the leading ship, on which vessel will probably fall the concentration of the enemy’s fire.’
作为这些演习的主裁判,费舍尔上将总结出了另一条重要的结论:“这些演习还表明,指挥官的战位应该在战列线的中央,原因在于,在单列纵队中,中央位置是最有利于发布命令,并将其传递给舰队中的其他军舰的”。在战列线的中央位置上,指挥官的信号旗既能被前方的军舰看到,也能被后方的军舰看到,因此可以大幅缩短将信号传递给所有军舰的时间。费舍尔还指出了中央战位的另一个优势:“如果将指挥官布置在战列线中的最前端,则很可能遭到敌方的集火攻击,而将指挥官布置在战列线中央,则可以有效避免这种风险”。

Admiral Sir John Fisher had noted in 1902, ‘the sole object of tactics to bring a preponderance of fire to bear on the enemy and not mask your own guns. Only the single line effects this’.
在1902年时,费舍尔还指出过:“海军战术的唯一目的,是将优势火力指向敌方,并避免已方火炮被烟雾遮蔽。只有单列纵队才能实现这一目的”。

In 1903 the Admiralty...believed the opinion of Flag Officers afloat - especially those who have the advantage of taking part in the ‘Battle Exercises’ of the past two years - trends on the whole towards the adoption of a single line or something approximating to a single line.
至1903年时,海军部表示,在他们看来,担任海上指挥职务的将官们,尤其是那些在过去两年中参加过演习的将官们,普遍倾向于采用单列纵队或与之类似的战斗队形。

4. 至于行军队形,英国海军经过研究后,选择采用并列纵队的形式。根据Stephen McLaughlin的说法(Battlelines and Fast Wings: Battlefleet Tactics in the Royal Navy, 1900-1914, P.5; Equal Speed Charlie London: Jellicoe’s Deployment at Jutland, P.1-2):

For all its advantages, however, the line of battle suffered from an unavoidable drawback: the line of battle was a clumsy formation to manoeuvre into a tactically advantageous position - if the leading ship turned to a new heading, the following ships each had to turn in succession in her wake, and the more ships there were in a fleet, the longer it would take for all the ships to turn onto the new course. For this reason, fleets generally steamed in short parallel columns, a disposition that made flag signaling easy and adjustments to the fleet's course relatively quick and simple. Each column constituted a division, and each division was usually led by a flag officer, whose flagship served as the ‘column guide’.
尽管战列线有着许多的优点,但也存在一个无法避免的缺陷:它是一个非常笨拙的队形,难以快速机动至更为有利的战术位置——如果领头的军舰调整航向的话,后续的军舰都必须顺次转向,因此舰队中的军舰数量越多,调整航向所需花费的时间也就越长。基于这个原因,舰队的行军队形,通常采用并列纵队,且每个纵队的长度较短,通常由1个分队组成,每个分队都由一名将官指挥,其旗舰作为队形中的先导舰,如此一来既能方便地通过信号旗传递命令,也可以较为简单而便捷地调整舰队的航向。

5. 在将行军队形转换为战斗队形时,需要使用相应的队形转换技术。根据Stephen McLaughlin的说法(Equal Speed Charlie London: Jellicoe’s Deployment at Jutland, P.2):

The question arose of how to form line of battle from cruising formation - that is, how to 'deploy'. If the columns were at 'manoeuvring distance' - defined as the interval between ships times the number of ships in a column - the line could be formed by having the leading ships turn eight points (90°) simultaneously to port or starboard, with the following ships of each column turning successively in their wakes. This was a simple 'equal speed' manoeuvre, so-called because the ships did not have to change speed to take up their positions. Moreover, it was fast: deployment took about four minutes for a fleet in divisions of four ships in close order (400-yard intervals between ships for pre-dreadnoughts, 500-yard intervals for dreadnoughts). It was also indefinitely expandable: no matter how many columns were added to the cruising disposition, the fleet would still form line of battle in the same amount of time.
接下来的问题是,在使用并列纵队行军的情况下,如何将其转换为战列线,即如何展开战列线?如果并列纵队中的各个纵队间的间距,保持在“可机动距离”,即两个纵队之间的间距相当于每个纵队中的各舰间距乘以纵队中的军舰数量,那么只需要让各个纵队中领头的军舰,同时向左或同时向右进行8个罗经点(90度)的转向,而纵队中的其他军舰则跟随前方的军舰顺次转向,便能完成队形转换。这种机动方式叫做“等速机动”,原因在于,在这种队形转换技术中,各舰无需对航速进行调整。这种技术的最大优点,是队形转换速度很快,对于一支由多个4舰分队组成,并采用小间距(对于前无畏舰而言是400码,对于无畏舰而言是500码)的舰队来说,只需要4分钟便能完成队形转换。这种技术还能很好的适应各种不同规模的舰队——无论行军队形中有多少个纵队,在转换为战斗队形时,所花费的时间都是相同的。

6. 与等速机动相对应的,还有一种叫做非等速机动的技术。根据Stephen McLaughlin的说法(Equal Speed Charlie London: Jellicoe’s Deployment at Jutland, P.2-4; Battlelines and Fast Wings: Battlefleet Tactics in the Royal Navy, 1900-1914, P.6):

The equal-speed deployment worked well enough if the bearing of the enemy was somewhere between dead ahead and about 4 points (45°) off the bow, but in the North Sea, where visibility was often poor, it was possible that the enemy might be encountered on an unexpected bearing. So in 1907-1908 Admiral Lord Charles Beresford, commander of the Channel Fleet, experimented with a variety of 'unequal speed' deployments - so-called because each column had to steam at a different speed to reach its assigned position in the line of battle. In similar fashion, Admiral Sir William May, commander-in-chief of the Home Fleet from 1909 to 1911, spent much of the first year of his tenure experimenting with various unequal speed deployment methods that allowed the fleet to form line of battle on almost any course, with the movements of the divisions so arranged that the admiral always wound up in the centre of the line. However, there was a serious drawback to these unequal-speed manoeuvres: they took anything from eleven to twenty minutes to complete depending upon the initial formation of the fleet and the direction of deployment. The four-minute equal-speed deployment was much quicker, as long as the enemy was sighted somewhere ahead...‘Unequal speed’ deployments took far longer than the equal-speed deployment. Thus the latter manoeuvre remained the preferred method, if the tactical situation was suitable.
当敌人的方位介于我方正前方至左右两侧约4个罗经点(45度)范围内时,等速机动具备良好的队形转换效果。但在北海区域,能见度经常是很差的,因此有可能在意料之外的方位上遭遇敌舰。针对这种情况,在1907-1908年时,海峡舰队司令查尔斯·贝雷斯福德上将,试验了几种“非等速机动”,如同其字面意思,在非等速机动中,为了到达战列线中的规定位置,每个纵队所需采用的航行速度是不一样的。在1909-1911年间担任本土舰队司令的威廉·梅上将,在其任期的第一年中,也花费了许多时间来试验各种不同类型的非等速机动,其目标是让舰队能在几乎所有的航向上都能组成战列线,并且各分队经过机动后,始终都会将指挥官置于战列线中央的位置。这种非等速机动的存在一个严重的短板:根据初始队形及机动方向上的差异,采用非等速机动将行军队形转换为战斗队形,需要花11-20分钟不等。相比之下,等速机动只需要花4分钟,速度要快得多,但限制是要求敌人位于前方区域。由于非等速机动所需花费的时间,远大于等速机动,因此在战术环境允许的前提下,英国海军更偏好使用后者。

7. 为了确保展开后的战列舰队,能够最为有效地杀伤敌方,并避免自身陷入不利的境地,战列线的展开方向也是很有讲究的。根据Norman Friedman的说法(Fighting the Great War at Sea - Strategy, Tactics and Technology):

The object of deployment as developed as early as 1901 (and as practised by Jellicoe at Jutland) was to lay the fleet athwart the path of the enemy fleet, crossing his ‘T’.
早在1901年时,英国海军就发展出了将舰队布置为横跨在敌方舰队之前,即对其形成T头之势的做法。这也是大舰队司令杰里科,在日德兰海战时使用的战术。

The worst, which seemed entirely possible, was that the British and German fleets would approach head-on, both fleets being in line ahead. In that case the battle might well open with a salvo of German torpedoes fired towards the British fleet. Because the British would be running towards the torpedoes, their effective range would be increased considerably. A quick run past the Germans would never provide enough time for gunfire to be effective.
最糟糕的展开态势,则是英德双方舰队迎头接近,且双方均采用纵队编队。这种情况并非不可能发生,且一旦发生,德国舰队很可能会对着英国舰队迎头发射鱼雷。在此情况下,英国军舰会迎着鱼雷前进,因此敌方鱼雷的有效射程会大幅增加。另一方面,由于在这种情况下,英国舰队会快速地与德国舰队擦肩而过,因此火炮的射击窗口很小,无法造成有效的打击效果。

Jellicoe wanted to get onto a parallel course steaming in the same direction, because only then would he have enough time to pour enough shells into the German ships. Jellicoe’s preference for parallel courses may have been tied to his fire-control capability. The closer the enemy course paralleled his, the lower (and less variable) the range rate and the simpler the fire-control problem.
为了避免这种情况,杰里科希望将战列线展开为与敌方同航向,并且使双方保持平行状态。其原因在于,这种展开方式,能为英国舰队提供充足的射击窗口,从而向德国军舰倾泻大量的炮弹。另外,杰里科倾向于使用平行航向,可能也与当时的英国军舰的火控能力有关。双方的航向越接近于平行,距离变化率就越小,火控难度也就越低。

一支由4艘无畏舰组成的英国战列舰分队的基本队形

4艘军舰采用纵队队形,各舰之间的间距(从本舰舰桥至他舰舰桥)为2.5链(约500码)。无论是行军还是战斗,单个分队都会保持该队形不变。

http://www.warships.com.cn/data/attachment/album/202105/24/183451nzc0uaueuy8scy9n.jpg

一支由2个4舰分队组成的舰队,在行军状态下改变航向

下图中,左侧是每个分队中的军舰进行同时转向,中间是每个分队中的军舰进行顺次转向,右侧是整个舰队在不改变队形的情况下调整航向。

http://www.warships.com.cn/data/attachment/album/202105/30/224831pkll7wdill9l9kil.jpg

一支由4个4舰分队组成的舰队,分别通过等速机动和非等速机动,从并列纵队(行军队形)转换为战列线(战斗队形)

下图中,上方部分展示了采用等速机动完成队形转换的过程,下方部分则展示了采用非等速机动完成队形转换的过程。

http://www.warships.com.cn/data/attachment/album/202105/30/164323mfgq7frrcgtwqi7r.jpg

分队战术

1. 与战列线战术相对的,是一种被称为分队战术的思想。根据Stephen McLaughlin的说法(Battlelines and Fast Wings: Battlefleet Tactics in the Royal Navy, 1900-1914, P.7; Divide and Conquer? Divisional Tactics and the Battle of Jutland, P.2-3):

Although there seems to have been a substantial consensus regarding these tactical concepts (battleline), there were dissidents. A number of officers - most notably Admirals Sir Reginald Custance and Sir Frederick Doveton Sturdee and Captains Herbert W. Richmond and William Reginald Hall - argued for the adoption of ‘divisional tactics’ or ‘divided attack’, in which the battlefleet would be subdivided into separate units that could act independently in battle. Mention must also be made of the Dewar brothers, Alfred and Kenneth, two young officers who would play a prominent part in the Jutland controversy after the war; both were already active participants in tactical debates before 1914, especially Kenneth. These men were all members of the self-proclaimed ‘historical school’, who looked to the past, and particularly to the great wars of the sailing era for tactical lessons. They believed that a fleet made up of separate detachments would facilitate concentration on portions of the enemy fleet, and would foster initiative and an offensive spirit on the part of divisional commanders. The line of battle in their eyes was a rigid, essentially defensive formation.
尽管在英国海军中,战列线的战术价值已经成为了得到普遍认可的共识,但反对意见也还是存在的。有一部军官提出应采用“分队战术”或者“分队进攻”,即将战列舰分为多个单独的单元,并在战斗中各自独立行动。这个派别代表人物是雷金纳德·康斯坦斯、弗雷德里克·斯特迪、赫伯特·里奇蒙德、以及威廉·雷金纳德·霍尔。除此之外,阿尔弗雷德·杜瓦和肯尼思·杜瓦也是不得不提的,这两兄弟在战前还很年轻,但已经积极参与到了战术讨论之中(尤其是肯尼思),战后他们还在围绕日德兰海战的战术争议中,扮演了重要的角色。这些人都属于一个自称为“历史学派”的团体,他们会研究历史经验,尤其是风帆时代的海战案例,并从中萃取出战术教训。他们认为,一支由多个独立分队构成的舰队,有助于提高分队指挥官们的主动性,并发挥他们的进攻精神,并且更有希望将兵力集中于敌方舰队中的特定部分。在他们眼中,战列线是一种死板的、偏向防御性质的队形。

2. 分队战术本身不乏可取之处,但却并未成为主流观点。根据Stephen McLaughlin的说法(Battlelines and Fast Wings: Battlefleet Tactics in the Royal Navy, 1900-1914, P.8; Divide and Conquer? Divisional Tactics and the Battle of Jutland, P.3):

They were, however, divided amongst themselves and never formed a coherent tactical school...Another handicap they faced was the fact that just about all of them were regarded as ‘difficult’ personalities: Custance’s ‘inflexibility’ and ‘inability to recognise the full implications of technological progress’ told against him; Sturdee was conceited and ‘rubbed many people the wrong way’; and even Richmond’s sympathetic biographer is forced to admit his subject’s ‘intolerance and intellectual arrogance’. Thus, although there was a good deal of merit in many of their views, the leading proponents of divisional tactics were often their own worst enemies when it came to trying to get their points across.
然而,这些人互相之间观点各异,从未形成过观点一致的战术学派。另一个问题是,这些人大多都属于性格怪异的类型:康斯坦斯被认为是顽固不化,且未能对技术进步形成充分的认识;斯特迪骄傲自负,惹怒了很多人;里奇蒙德虽然智力超群,但也因此非常傲慢,且对他人缺乏容忍度。因此,尽管分队战术的支持者们的许多观点都是颇有价值的,但由于这些人的性格问题,导致了这些观点难以被推广,并得到他人认可。

3. 尽管如此,英国海军也不是完全没有尝试过分队战术。根据Stephen McLaughlin的说法(Divide and Conquer? Divisional Tactics and the Battle of Jutland, P.3):

Yet despite their personal shortcomings, they did manage to get their ideas tried at sea. Experiments with divisional tactics were carried out in the Channel Fleet under Admiral Lord Charles Beresford in 1907-08 - Custance was his second-in-command - but unfortunately almost no information about these exercises has come to light. Far more is known about the tactical work carried out in the Home Fleet under the command of Admiral Sir William May (March 1909 - March 1911). Richmond, May’s flag captain, wrote a paper for the Commander-in-Chief, suggesting various exercises, in which one and sometimes both fleets were to fight in widely separated divisions, instead of the stereotyped single line. May at first instinctively opposed any departure from the conventional idea...he accepted the suggestion and carried out a large number of appropriate exercises during the last year of his command.
尽管这些人自身存在性格缺陷,但他们还是成功地将其思想付诸于实践了。在1907-08年间,在海峡舰队就曾在演习中尝试过分队战术,当时该舰队的司令是查尔斯·贝雷斯福德上将,而副司令则是康斯坦斯。很可惜的是,目前尚未发现关于这些演习的详细信息。更广为人知的分队战术演习,则是在威廉·梅上将担任本土舰队司令的时期开展的(1909年3月至1911年3月)。里奇蒙德当时是梅的旗舰舰长,他曾给梅写了一封信,建议后者在演习中使用分队战术:在一些演习中,可以由其中一支舰队采用分队战术,另一支则采用战列线战术;而在另一些演习中,甚至会让两支舰队同时采用分队战术。起初,梅是本能地反对这种偏离传统观念的战术的,但后来接受了这些建议,并在其本土舰队司令任期的后期,开展了不少分队战术演习。

4. 这些战术演习的结果,大多是战列线战术胜过分队战术,但梅显然充分认识到了分队战术的价值。根据Stephen McLaughlin的说法(Divide and Conquer? Divisional Tactics and the Battle of Jutland, P.4):

During his period in command...Divisional tactics were explored in fifteen exercises; of these, twelve involved actions between a fleet in single line and one attacking using independent divisions. In each exercise, the gunfire the two sides would have brought to bear was tabulated, and in nine out of twelve cases the single line proved superior. Nevertheless, May was converted to the cause of divisional tactics, writing that: Dividing the fleet at once gives freedom to subordinates and in so doing strikes at the root of the purely defensive formation of the single line, and leads to an offensive method of engaging. May also noted one of the lessons of these exercises: The speed of the Division is a most important factor, and unless the divisional attack has the superiority of speed, the difficulties of placing the Divisions in their correct position are considerable.
在梅担任本土舰队司令期间,他总共开展过15次分队战术演习。其中,有12次是分队战术与战列线战术的对抗演习,在这些演习中,他们会计算双方的有效输出火力,其结果是,战列线战术赢了12次中的9次。尽管如此,梅对分队战术的态度却有了非常大的改变,他写道:“将舰队分开的做法,为下属赋予了自由,并将战术风格从防御风格的战列线,转变为积极进取的进攻风格”。基于这些演习,梅还总结出了一个教训:“分队的速度是至关重要的,除非拥有速度优势,不然分队很难机动到正确的位置”。

5. 分队战术若想成功,需要搭配去中心化的指挥体系。根据Stephen McLaughlin的说法(Divide and Conquer? Divisional Tactics and the Battle of Jutland, P.3-4):

These exercises soon revealed a fundamental problem: Instead of issuing brief general instructions beforehand and encouraging… subordinate Commanders to use their initiative and intelligence in forwarding the general plan of attack, Admirals tried to direct squadrons and flotillas by signal. The results were unsatisfactory and would probably have been chaotic in actual battle. The fault lay not so much in the actual tactics as in the system of command.
这些演习很快就揭示出了一个核心问题:分队战术的演习结果并不理想,如果换作实战的话,甚至可能会是灾难性的失败,但问题并不在于战术本身,而是在于指挥体系。当时的舰队司令们,往往不喜欢事先下发基本指示类的文件,也不喜欢鼓励下属的指挥官们发挥主动性,在遵循基本作战方案的前提下,根据战场信息灵活应变。相反,他们更喜欢通过信号旗发布命令,从而对麾下的各个中队进行直接指挥。

A dramatic improvement occurred during the last two months of May’s command. It was suggested, unofficially, to some of the junior admirals, who occasionally acted as Cs-in-C of the opposing fleets, that less centralised methods might give better results. The consequent improvement was almost miraculous. In an exercise carried out on 24th January, 1911, two divisions attacked their opponents van and three their rear. So far as could be judged from the exercises, the fleet in single line would have been paralysed and destroyed. Also, when the Home and Mediterranean Fleets met off the Spanish coast in February, 1911, Rear-Admiral Sir George Warrender, in command of Red Fleet, assisted by Captain Reginald Hall, prepared brief instructions for divisional attacks on Blue Fleet. The plan was to isolate Blue’s centre and concentrate against its van and rear from ahead and astern. The plan was a striking success for decentralisation of command.
在梅的任期的最后两个月内,分队战术取得了突破性的进展。尽管是非官方性质的做法,但有几位在演习中扮演舰队司令的资历较浅的将官们得到了如下建议:采用去中心化的指挥体系,可能会取得更好的结果。这种建议的成效几乎可以说是突破性的。在1911年1月24日的演习中,有两个分队攻击了对方的前卫,另外三个攻击了对方的后卫,其结果是,采用了战列线战术的舰队,被瘫痪、乃至消灭了。另一个例子是,在1911年2月,本土舰队与地中海舰队在西班牙沿岸进行演习时,指挥红方舰队的乔治·沃伦德少将,在雷金纳德·霍尔上校的辅佐下,拟定了一份通过分队战术对抗蓝方舰队的方案。他们的计划,是将蓝方舰队的中央部分孤立起来,并从前方和后方分别包抄蓝方的前卫和后卫。通过去中心化的指挥,这个作战方案取得了极大的成功。

6. 梅的后继者们,则更偏向于使用战列线战术,至杰里科时期,分队战术已经式微了。根据Stephen McLaughlin的说法(Divide and Conquer? Divisional Tactics and the Battle of Jutland, P.4-8):

According to Richmond, after May relinquished command of the Home Fleet in March 1911, ‘the whole study was dropped’, and several historians have repeated this view. But this is contradicted by Frederic Dreyer, who served in the Home Fleet throughout this period; in his memoirs he wrote that divisional tactics were tried in exercises later in 1911 ‘without success’, and that the following year ‘Divided tactics were again put to the test in inter-Fleet manoeuvres, and again it was found that control of the situation was then easily lost’. The latter manoeuvres would have been conducted by Admiral Callaghan, who commanded the Home Fleet from December 1911 to August 1914. Unfortunately, we have very little information on actual exercises involving divisional tactics that Callaghan may have carried out.
根据里奇蒙德的说法,自1911年3月,梅上将从本土舰队司令任上退下来后,分队战术的研究工作就被搁置了。有不少历史学家,也附和了这种说法。但弗雷德里克·德雷尔的说法,则是与之相悖的。在这段时间,德雷尔一直是在本土舰队任职的,他在回忆录中写道,在1911年晚些时候,他们也尝试过分队战术,但并不成功;在1912年时,他们在跨舰队对抗演习中再次使用过分队战术,但他们发现,战场指挥很容易失控。后面的这场演习,显然是在卡拉汉担任本土舰队司令期间开展的,后者的任期是1911年11月至1914年8月。遗憾的是,关于卡拉汉所开展的分队战术演习,并没有更详细的信息可供了解。

The evidence for divisional tactics in the period between Jellicoe’s replacement of Admiral Callaghan as C-in-C on 4 August 1914 and the Battle of Jutland on 31 May 1916 is minimal...there was at least one persistent proponent of them in the Grand Fleet: Vice-Admiral Sturdee, victor of the Falkland Islands, who took command of the 4th Battle Squadron on 7 February 1915. It would appear that soon after his arrival Sturdee began pressing the case for dividing the fleet while approaching the enemy...Jellicoe was not impressed with Sturdee’s ideas; ten days before the Battle of Jutland, he wrote to the First Sea Lord: In regard to Sturdee, I should never feel safe with him in command of the most important squadron leading the van… I am very sorry to say that I do not trust his judgement in tactical questions. I feel very strongly about this and I know that other flag officers hold the same views…by the time of Jutland they were no longer under consideration.
自1914年8月,即杰里科接替卡拉汉,至1916年5月31日,即日德兰海战的这段时间内,与分队战术有关的证据是非常少的。不过,在大舰队中,至少有一位分队战术的坚定支持者:斯特迪中将。他在福克兰海战中取得了胜利,并在1915年2月7日时,接过了第4战列舰中队的指挥官职务。他到任后,很快就开始要求在接敌阶段使用分队战术。不过,对于斯特迪的主意,杰里科并不感兴趣。在日德兰海战爆发的十天之前,杰里科给第一海务大臣写信道:“对于斯特迪这个人,我永远都不会放心让他指挥舰队中最重要的中队,并担任前卫。很抱歉的说,我信不过他在战术问题上的判断。我的观点是非常坚决的,并且我知道,其他将官们也持有同我有一样的想法”。至日德兰海战时,分队战术显然已经不在杰里科的考虑范围内了。

7. 总的来说,分队战术是一种更为积极,甚至可以说略微有些激进的战术,因而必然会带有一些冒险性质。根据Arthur J. Marder的说法(From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, Volume III, Jutland and After, May to December 1916, P.12):

A small group of officers...advocated divisional or 'divided' tactics...The attempt to apply equal pressure all along the line, they maintained, usually produced indecisive results. A decision was best achieved by concentrating a superior force on part of the enemy's line and perhaps surrounding it, whose defeat would lead to the collapse of the whole enemy line.
在那些支持分队战术的少数派军官看来,战列线战术对敌方舰队各个部分所造成的压力是相同的,因此往往无法取得决定性的战果。如果派遣一支具备优势战力的分队,集中攻击敌方战列线的一部分,甚至说对其形成合围,那么这部分敌人的败退将会导致整个敌方战列线的崩溃。

There are conflicting opinions on their results. 'Even in clear visibility', testifies an officer who seems to have been present at the exercises, 'great difficulty was experienced in co-ordinating such an attack.' One contemporary summed up: 'Such a measure ran the risk that the fast detachment might be wiped out, and if they did not run such a risk, they would not come into action at all. Their absence from the main battle line would, in any case, weaken the overpowering strength of that line.'
持反对意见的人则更多。例如,有人认为,此类分队战术的指挥与协调,是非常困难的。另一人认为,采用分队战术,会导致分队不得不承担被歼灭的风险。而如果那个分队选择不冒险,则又可能完全发挥不了作用。分队离开了本队之后,又会导致本队的力量得到削弱。

本土舰队的分队战术演习示例

此次演习中,用白底标识的舰队采用了分队战术,用黑底标识的舰队采用了战列线战术。演习时的能见度为14,000码,并规定10,000码以内的射击是有效的。演习开始时,双方距离最近的军舰,相距12,500码,6分钟后距离进入10,000码以内,白底舰队开始射击,而黑底舰队仍在通过非等速机动,将并列纵队(行军队形)转换为战列线(战斗队形)。尽管黑底舰队在机动过程中也有开火,但由于部分军舰阻挡了另一部分军舰的视线,外加一部分军舰位于有效射程之外,因此在组成战列线之前,黑底舰队的火力输出一直不如白底舰队——后者通过分队战术,对前者的首尾进行了包抄,且将大部分火力集中在了前者的队伍尾部。直到黑底舰队组成战列线之后(自演习开始大约20分钟后),他们的火力输出才开始反超白底舰队。

http://www.warships.com.cn/data/attachment/album/202105/27/121336lxvxhk5vhx4jxx65.jpg

快速侧翼战术

1. 除了分队战术之外,当时还有一种快速侧翼战术,这两者有类似之处,但也存在一些差异。根据Stephen McLaughlin的说法(Divide and Conquer? Divisional Tactics and the Battle of Jutland, P.4):

Divisional tactics often took the form of fast wings attacking the van and rear of the enemy fleet; both Hall and Richmond recommended this technique. There was in fact considerable overlap between the two tactical ideas, but they were not synonymous. For divisional proponents, the important element was always the independence of the detached force. A fast division that remained tied to the movements of the main body was merely a ‘prolongation of the battle line’.
分队战术的具体形式,经常是借助快速侧翼去打击敌方舰队的首尾两端。霍尔和里奇蒙德都建议采用这种战术。然而,尽管分队战术和快速侧翼战术,的确有许多相似之处,但他们绝非是同义词。对于分队战术的支持者来说,分队的独立性是非常重要的。而与本队保持紧密联系的快速分队,仅仅只能算作是战列线的延伸部分。

2. 早在前无畏舰时代,快速侧翼战术就已经存在了。根据Stephen McLaughlin的说法(Battlelines and Fast Wings: Battlefleet Tactics in the Royal Navy, 1900-1914, P.15):

The Royal Navy’s tacticians had a long-standing interest in the idea of a fast division; as early as 1901 it had been noted that: The opinion on the use of armoured Cruisers is practically unanimous, that with their speed and protection they should be utilised for attacking the van and rear of the enemy from the very commencement of the engagement. This idea of attacking the ‘flanks’ of an enemy’s line with fast ships was a form of concentration - the leading and trailing ships of the enemy’s line, already occupied with the main body of the British fleet, would in addition be subjected to the fire of the fast ships without being able to reply effectively.
皇家海军的战术家们对快速分队战术的喜好,并不是一天两天的事,早在1901年时,他们就写道:“对于装甲巡洋舰的运用方式,观点几乎是一致的,凭借其速度与防护水准,这种军舰应该在战斗打响的那刻,就被派去攻击敌方的前卫和后卫”。这种使用快速军舰攻击敌方侧翼的思想,实质上是一种集中兵力的做法——由于敌方舰队首尾两端的军舰,本身就已经在和英国舰队的主体部分交战了,因此即便被快速军舰夹击,也无法组织起有效的还击。

3. 至无畏舰时代,战列巡洋舰成为了执行快速侧翼战术的合理选择。根据Stephen McLaughlin的说法(Battlelines and Fast Wings: Battlefleet Tactics in the Royal Navy, 1900-1914, P.15-16):

Many officers believed that the new type of armoured cruiser - later dubbed the battlecruiser - could fulfill this role, and in 1908, when the first battlecruisers, Inflexible and Indomitable, entered service, exercises were carried out using them as a fast wing division. By 1913, this role had become a standard one for the Battle Cruiser Squadron under Rear-Admiral Sir David Beatty.
有许多军官都认为,新式的装甲巡洋舰,即后来被改称为战列巡洋舰的那些军舰,可以完成快速侧翼的任务。在1908年时,第一批战列巡洋舰建成入役后,英国人就在演习中,将这些军舰用作快速侧翼分队了。至1913年时,在大卫·贝蒂少将的指挥下,这已经成为了战列巡洋舰中队的标准职能之一了。

4. 然而,反对将战列巡洋舰用作快速侧翼的声音,也是存在的。根据Stephen McLaughlin的说法(Battlelines and Fast Wings: Battlefleet Tactics in the Royal Navy, 1900-1914, P.16):

But by this time doubts had arisen regarding the ability of the battlecruisers to fill the role of a fast wing division. As early as 1909 Admiral Sir Francis Bridgeman, then commanding the Home Fleet, expressed the view that battlecruisers ‘must never be considered as dreadnoughts ….hey cannot work with battleships …. hey must be deployed as cruisers.’His views were presumably based on the weakness of their armour.
也是在这一时期,开始有人提出质疑,战列巡洋舰到底能否胜任快速侧翼分队的职能?早在1909年时,当时担任本土舰队司令的弗朗西斯·布里奇曼上将,就曾表示:“战列巡洋舰永远都不能被视为无畏舰,这些军舰是不能与战列舰共同行动的,必须被当做巡洋舰来使用”。他的观点,可能是源于战列巡洋舰的装甲厚度不足。

Perhaps an even stronger objection to the use of battlecruisers as a fast wing was the fact that between 1911 and 1913 four German battlecruisers entered service, and as Callaghan noted, experience gained…appears to show that the battle-cruisers will be occupied in advance of the battlefleet… if so, it is not improbable that they will also be engaged with the enemy’s battle-cruisers and cruisers, and may consequently be unable to form on their own battlefleet before the general action commences. In other words, the British battlecruisers would be too busy coping with their German counterparts to form a fast wing for their own battlefleet.
还有另一种更为强有力的声音,反对将战列巡洋舰用作快速侧翼——在1911至1913年间,德国海军先后有4艘战列巡洋舰入役,对此卡拉汉表示,根据经验,战列巡洋舰可能会用作战列舰队的先导部队,因此这些军舰很有可能会与敌方的战列巡洋舰或巡洋舰发生交战,因此在决战开始前,可能无法与战列舰队汇合。换句话说,英国战列巡洋舰可能会忙于对抗德国战列巡洋舰,而无暇作为快速侧翼支持已方的战列舰队。

5. 基于这个原因,英国海军建造了一批专门用作快速侧翼的战列舰——伊丽莎白女王级。根据Stephen McLaughlin的说法(Battlelines and Fast Wings: Battlefleet Tactics in the Royal Navy, 1900-1914, P.16-17):

This realisation led to the idea of fully armoured fast battleships that would form an organic component of the battlefleet. Bridgeman, now First Sea Lord, was probably instrumental in the process, and as a result four fast battleships of the Queen Elizabeth class were laid down under the 1912 programme; a fifth was later added thanks to a gift from the Federated Malay States; moreover, the Admiralty hoped that Canada would likewise donate money, with which it intended to build further units of the class; when they failed to materialise, a sixth fast battleship was included in the 1914 programme, but were cancelled after the outbreak of war.
由此,英国海军产生了建造具备充分装甲保护的快速战列舰的念头,这些军舰将会成为战列舰队的重要组成部分。当时,布里奇曼已经升任第一海务大臣了,他可能是这些决策背后的关键人物。其结果是,英国海军在1912财年的造舰计划中,安排了四艘伊丽莎白女王级快速战列舰;后来,马来联邦捐款建造了第五艘同型舰;海军部本来还期望加拿大也能捐款,从而再多建造一些同型舰,但最后并未如愿。再后来,英国人在1914年造舰计划中加入了第六艘快速战列舰,但由于战争爆发,最终又被取消了。

Winston Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, explained the rationale for the simultaneous construction of two different classes of battleships to his Cabinet colleagues: The fast division of battleships of the year 1912-13 consisted of vessels of exceptional speed...With the 4 fast ships of 1912-13 and the ‘Malaya’, together with the 3 Canadians (if they come), we shall have completed a squadron of 8 fast battleships, sufficient, that is to say, to provide a fast division of 4 at either end of the line of battle.
当时的海军大臣是丘吉尔,对于海军为什么要同时建造两种不同类型的战列舰的问题,他向议会的同僚们解释道:“1912-13年造舰计划中的快速战列舰,具有非常快的航速。这四艘军舰,外加马来亚号,以及可能会凭借加拿大资金建造的3艘同型舰,将能组成一个包括8艘快速战列舰的中队。换句话说,我们可以为战列线的首尾两端,各配备一个4舰快速分队”。

6. 由伊丽莎白女王级组成的第5战列舰中队,最终成为了大舰队下属的快速分队。与战列巡洋舰队的区别在于,后者拥有非常高的行动自由度,而前者没有。根据John Brooks的说法(The Battle of Jutland, P.62):

In March 1916, the battlefleet’s own fast division, the 5BS, reached its full strength of five Queen Elizabeth-class battleships. Its Rear-Admiral Commanding, Hugh Evan-Thomas, had served with Jellicoe as a young officer and remained a close personal friend and admirer...In cruising dispositions, the 5BS was positioned well ahead of the battlefleet but, on encountering the enemy, Evan-Thomas was expected to rejoin the battlefleet in a position that, if practicable, Jellicoe would himself order - either at the van or rear of the battle line or as a fast division some four or five miles ahead.
在1916年3月时,大舰队麾下的快速分队,第5战列舰中队,达到了满编水准——5艘伊丽莎白女王级战列舰。指挥该中队的,是休·伊文-托马斯少将。他在青年时期曾与杰里科共事过,并且一直是后者的仰慕者,两人的私交颇深。在行军状态下,第5战列舰中队航行在队伍前方,距离其余战列舰很远;但在与敌方发生接触后,该中队需要与其余战列舰汇合。如果汇合成功的话,杰里科会下令将其作为整条战列线的前卫或后卫,也可能将其布置在战列线前方4-5海里处。

In contrast to the detailed orders to Evan-Thomas, Jellicoe allowed Beatty, as vice-admiral commanding the BCF (VAC BCF), to ‘act as he considers necessary’ in carrying out his general instructions. Prior to meeting the enemy, the BCF’s battlecruisers and light cruisers were to drive in the enemy’s light forces. Then, the battlecruisers’ primary function was the destruction of the enemy battlecruisers - unless the latter were absent or had already been destroyed, when the BCF was to serve as a fast division of the battlefleet.
作为对比,负责指挥战列巡洋舰队的贝蒂中将,则享有高得多的自由度。在遵循杰里科的整体指示的前提下,贝蒂可以按照自己的想法行事。在与敌方大型军舰接触之前,贝蒂麾下的战列巡洋舰和轻巡洋舰的任务是驱逐敌方的轻型舰艇。发生接触后,主要任务则是消灭敌方的战列巡洋舰。如果敌方的战列巡洋舰未出现,或已被歼灭,则贝蒂麾下的战列巡洋舰会作为大舰队的快速分队来行动。

德国海军的队形与机动

德国海军的队形和机动方式,与英国海军是类似的。但在具体细节上,双方之间则存在一些差异:

1. 德国海军的队形,可分为行军队形、预备队形、战斗队形这三类。根据John Brooks的说法(The Battle of Jutland, P.129 & P.145):

The Manoeuvring Instructions were prefaced by the assertion that: ‘Single line is the only useful formation for battleships’...Single line-ahead was the German Navy’s preferred cruising formation; columns of divisions were regarded as a formation for the approach only...The Germans would deploy into line from their preparatory approach formations in columns.
在德国海军的机动指示的前言部分中,写有如下文字:“对于战列线来说,单列纵队是唯一有用的队形”。在行军状态下,德国海军偏好使用单列纵队;在接敌之前,他们会转换为并列纵队的预备队形;在开始战斗前,他们会从预备队形转换为单列纵队的战列线。

2. 德国海军似乎相当热衷于采用非等速机动。根据John Brooks的说法(The Battle of Jutland, P.61-62):

The Manoeuvring Instructions also laid down standard fleet formations (including line-ahead, line-abreast and columns variously disposed) and instructions and diagrams for altering course and formation. For these purposes, the Germans made greater use of unequal-speed manoeuvres, but each was described in detail so that it was clear how it should be executed.
德国人的机动指示中,展示了各自不同类型的舰队队形(包括各种样式的纵队、横队、以及并列纵队),以及不同类型的航向调整与队形转换的机动方式。并且,他们花了很大篇幅介绍非等速机动,详细的描写了此类机动应该如何完成。

3. 德国海军没有专门的快速战列舰,但其战列巡洋舰能发挥类似的作用。根据John Brooks的说法(The Battle of Jutland, P.130):

As in the Royal Navy, the German battlecruisers were expected to act independently. As the ‘fast division’, the battlecruisers were to attack the head of the enemy line and to engage his fast forces.
与英国海军的情况类似,德国海军的战列巡洋舰,也是会单独行动的。作为快速分队,这些战列巡洋舰可以攻击敌方战列线的最前端,或与敌方的快速分队交战。

结论:在一战时期,英德两国海军的战列舰编队,都是基于战列线战术的,且双方都是以单列纵队作为交战队形的;但在行军队形上,两国之间则存在差异。除了战列线战术之外,还有分队战术和快速侧翼战术这两种战术思想,由于前者的理念是与战列线战术相悖的,而后者则是依附于战列线战术的,因此在战列线战术占据主导地位的情况下,前者势必就式微了,但后者则得到了一定程度的发展。


二、指挥与通讯

无论采用哪种战术,舰队总是需要有人来指挥的,这就涉及到了指挥机制的话题;而指挥官的命令若想顺利传达给麾下的战术单位或军舰,则需要与其进行通讯,因此通讯方式也是海军战术中的重要组成部分。

指挥机制

1. 采用战列线战术时,指挥权通常是由舰队司令掌握的,各个战术单位的指挥官则往往缺乏自主行动权。对于这种指挥方式,有不少历史学家都给予了批评,认为指挥权过于集中了。根据Arthur J. Marder的说法(From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, Volume III, Jutland and After, May to December 1916, P.12):

Centralized command was in part a derivative of the single-line conception. Whether by written instructions or signals, centralized command dominated the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It never occurred to anyone that centralized control could be dispensed with when bringing a fleet into action. Once in close action, there could be almost no control because the smoke prevented signals being read and orders could only be sent by boat, so naturally there were general instructions about how ships were to behave.
集中指挥机制算得上是战列线战术的衍生产物。在17至18世纪时,借助书面指示或信号旗的方式,集中指挥曾经大行其道。当时的人普遍认为,在交战开始前的阶段,集中指挥是断断不可能舍弃的。当双方舰队陷入近战后,由于火炮烟雾的影响,其他舰船无法看清旗舰上的信号旗,因此除非派遣通报舰,否则是无法实现集中指挥的。在这种情况下,需要借助事先下发的基本指示,告知下属届时应如何行事。

Similarly, throughout the nineteenth century, the line was worked entirely by the C.-in-C. from his flagship, usually at the head of the line and assisted by repeating ships as in the sailing days. But centralization was, by the end of the century, being carried to extremes. The idea of co-operation, as opposed to mechanical obedience, was virtually ignored.
至19世纪时,情况也是类似的,整条战列线都是由旗舰上的指挥官控制的,后者通常位于战列线的最前端,并且也会像风帆时代那样,配备通报舰作为辅助手段。但发展至19世纪末期时,集中指挥机制被发展到了过于极端的地步,只剩下了机械式的服从,而协同合作的意义则几乎被忽略了。

2. 随着火炮和鱼雷射程的进步,交战范围变得更为广阔了,这增加了集中指挥的困难度。根据Norman Friedman的说法(Fighting the Great War at Sea - Strategy, Tactics and Technology):

Gun and torpedo ranges both expanded enormously during the pre-war decade. Fleets spread out. As a result, the battle space expanded to the point where an Admiral on his bridge could no longer easily see or understand what was happening. Even if he could have seen all of his ships under good conditions, in combat his vision was badly compromised by the combination of funnel smoke (inevitable for coal-burning warships) and gunsmoke.
在战前的十年间,火炮和鱼雷的射程都取得了长足进步,舰队也散的更开了,其结果就是,战场空间变得更大了,以至于位于旗舰舰桥上的司令,无法轻松地观察并掌握完整的战场情况了。即便在能见度良好,能够看清楚所有军舰的情况下,进入战斗状态后,由于火炮及锅炉导致的烟雾,也会极大地影响其视线。

3. 在此背景下,尽管有一些年轻军官推崇去中心化的指挥,但在高阶军官中,很少有人支持这种理念。根据Arthur J. Marder的说法(From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, Volume I, The Road to War, 1904-1914, P.397-398; From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, Volume III, Jutland and After, May to December 1916, P.19):

It was urged by a few of the younger officers that the doctrine be replaced by decentralization, that is, by the delegation of responsibility and initiative to subordinate commanders, who could adopt the formation and tactics suited to the immediate situation. The underlying consideration was that, in the stress and strain of battle, the C.-in-C. would hardly be able to visualize the rapidly changing situations which confronted his subordinates in the various sectors of a vast battlefield.
部分年轻军官提出,用去中心化的指挥,来取代集中指挥机制。具体来说,是将指挥责任及采取主动行动的权力,下放给下属的指挥官们,由他们根据临场情况,选择最合适的队形和战术。这种做法背后的考量是,在紧张的战场环境下,对于那些分散在战场各处,面临着千变万化的战场环境的下属们的情况,舰队司令是很难掌控的。

'Over-centralization killed initiative, and lack of initiative rendered decentralization impracticable.' This was, in essence, the situation before the war. Only a few admirals tried to cut through this vicious circle and experiment with less centralized methods of command by delegating some measure of authority to the junior flag officers. May himself, in the last months of his command experimented with less centralized methods. Beatty's pre-war Battle Cruiser Orders indicated the importance he attached to initiative in captains and subordinate commanders. Callaghan tried to introduce a measure of decentralization, which would have given divisional leaders an opportunity to act on their own initiative in battle, subject to certain general principles being carried out. Jellicoe himself occupied an intermediate position, and his G.F.B.O.s contain both centralization and decentralization principles, though with the emphasis clearly on the former.
过度的集权,会杀死主动性,而缺乏主动性则使得去中心化难以得到实现。这基本就是大战前夕的实际情况了。只有少数几位将官试图打破这种恶性循环,并通过将部分权限下放给下属的方式,来尝试较为去中心化的指挥机制。1909-1911年间担任本土舰队司令的梅,在其任期的最后几个月内尝试了较为去中心化的指挥方式。指挥战列巡洋舰部队的贝蒂,在其于1913年下发的战列巡洋舰中队命令中强调,在他麾下,下属指挥官及各舰舰长的主动性是非常重要的。1911-1914年间担任本土舰队司令的卡拉汉,也尝试采用去中心化的指挥方式:在遵循基本条令的前提下,分队指挥官们将能够根据自身判断主动发起行动。至于战时担任大舰队司令的杰里科,则属于中间派,他下发的【大舰队战斗命令】中,既包括集中指挥,也包括去中心化的指挥,但明显更偏向于前者。

通讯方式

一战时期的海军,有着多种不同的通讯方式。一方面,信号旗、旗语等在风帆时期就已经得到广泛运用的传统手段,依然是不可或缺的;另一方面,新出现不久的无线电通讯技术,同样也有着不可替代的作用。

1. 首先我们来介绍一下英国海军所使用的信号旗,及其使用方法。根据John Brooks的说法(The Battle of Jutland, P.49-50):

For centuries, flags were at the heart of naval signalling, not only because they remained an effective method of communicating between ships but because they determined the ‘language’ of signals. In the Royal Navy, signals were made using flags (mostly rectangular, a few triangular or swallow-tailed burgees) and pendants (narrow, tapered banners). By 1915, there were:twenty-six flags for the letters of the alphabet; ten numeral flags; ten numeral pendants; and ten special pendants and thirteen special flags.
数个世纪以来,信号旗都是海军通讯的基础,这不仅仅是因为信号旗是一种舰与舰之间的有效通讯手段,更因为通讯语言本身就是基于信号旗拟定的。在1915年时皇家海军所使用的信号旗包括:用于对应字母(a到z)的26种旗帜(大部分为长方形,少量三角形或燕尾形)、用于对于数字(0到9)的10种旗帜和10种尖旗(一种狭长、逐渐收窄的旗帜)、外加一些特殊旗帜和尖旗。

The standard signals for manoeuvring and action were not spelt out letter by letter but were expressed as short ‘codes’, each code corresponding to a ‘hoist’ of just a few flags or pendants. A small number of signals could be made using just a single flag; for example, the 5 flag alone was a general signal to the whole fleet to ‘Open fire’. Other important signals were almost as brief.
舰队机动与行动方面的标准信号,是不需要逐字拼写出来的,而是会用一个专门的代号来指代,每个代号只需要用数面旗帜或尖旗就能传递,有些甚至只需要一面旗帜。例如:对应数字5的旗帜,代表命令整个舰队开火。其他的重要命令也很简单。

While suitable for the prompt communication of action and manoeuvring orders, these Signal Book codes were not sufficient for all the less urgent information that had to be conveyed between the ships of a fleet. This need was met by the Vocabulary Signal Book. A signal of this type was sent as a sequence of three-letter codes, each code standing either for individual words, or for longer phrases. Only when the vocabulary book failed to provide the required words or phrases was it necessary to spell out some parts of a signal letter by letter.
这些被写进信号本里的代号,适用于常规的机动和行动命令,但并不足以包括其他那些相对不那么重要,但又需要在舰与舰之间传递的信息。为此,英国人还有一套词汇信号本。此类信号是通过一套由三个字母构成的代号来传递的,每组代号对应英国特定的词汇或短语。只有在词汇信号本也无法表达对应的词句时,才需要将其逐字拼写出来。

A few signals, like the 5 flag for ‘Open fire’, were acted upon ‘as soon as seen’. But the majority were not ‘made executive’, that is, put into effect, until the flagship had received confirmation that they had been received and understood by all the intended recipients. The procedure, slightly simplified, was that a ship answered a signal by hoisting the Answering Pendant (white and red): ‘at the dip’ when the signal was first seen, then ‘close up’ as soon as it was understood...Answering pendants were kept flying until the flagship made the signal executive by hauling it down.
少部分信号,例如代表“开火”的数字5,是要求看见后立刻执行的。但绝大部分信号并不是看见后立刻执行的,而是要等到接收命令的各舰向旗舰反馈,他们已经收到并明白命令后,旗舰才会下令执行。简单来说,其操作流程是:收到命令的军舰,会将一面回答尖旗(红白旗)升至一半的位置,然后在明白命令后将其升至最高。等旗舰将信号旗降下后,就意味着要执行了,此时其余军舰会把回答尖旗降下。

‘The Size 1 flags issued to capital ships were big: the rectangular ones 11 feet by 9 feet.’ But, even in good visibility, five miles was too far for signalling only by flags and the Grand Fleet Signal Orders insisted that, whenever flag signals were difficult to distinguish, they must be repeated by alternative means.
主力舰所使用的1号尺寸信号旗,是很大的:长方形旗帜的尺寸是11英尺乘9英尺。但是,即便是能见度良好的情况下,在5海里以外就很难看清信号旗了,因此大舰队信号命令中强调,在信号旗难以辨认的情况下,必须使用其他手段来传递命令。

2. 除了信号旗以外,还有一些其他的基于视觉原理的通讯方式,如旗语和灯光。根据John Brooks的说法(The Battle of Jutland, P.51-52):

By the early years of the twentieth century, while flag signalling had been developed to a high state of efficiency, it was by no means the only form of visual communication. Mechanical semaphores or simple hand flags could be used to send signals as letters, numbers and a few special control signs. Alternatively, letters and numbers could also be sent by Morse code, these signals being flashed by, among others, searchlights and arc lamps with shutters, and truck flashing lamps. But the point to emphasise is that signals sent by semaphore or flashed in Morse were essentially in the same form as flag signals.
在20世纪初年时,通过信号旗传递命令的机制已经发展得非常高效了,但却并不是唯一的视觉通讯方式。手持或机械式的旗语,也可以用来传递字母、数字、以及一些特殊代号。此外,字母和数字也可以通过莫尔斯代码的方式来传递,这就需要借助带有遮光板的探照灯之类的设备。需要强调的是,通过旗语或灯光传递的信息,本质上是采用信号旗的通讯语言的。

Semaphore and flashing were better suited to the longer routine signals encoded using the vocabulary book. Flag signals remained the principal means for manoeuvring the fleet and conveying orders in action, though semaphore or flashing provided alternative means of repeating flag signals, or sending them over greater distances than were practicable by flags. In good visibility in northern waters, the large truck semaphores could be read at a distance of eight to ten miles, while the searchlights and arc lamps could be read to the horizon.
信号旗仍然是用来传递舰队机动和行动命令的主要手段,而旗语和灯光则可作为补充手段。另外,旗语和灯光更适合用来传递词汇信号本中规定的那些较长的信号。在北海区域,能见度良好的情况下,大型的旗语在8-10海里以外都可以看清,而灯光的传递距离则可远至地平线。

3. 最后,我们再来介绍一下英国海军的无线电通讯设备。根据John Brooks的说法(The Battle of Jutland, P.52-53):

By 1907, two standard designs of W/T set had been developed: to use their later designations, the Type 1 was a high-power 14KW (kilowatt) set that was fitted in dreadnoughts and armoured cruisers; other ships larger than destroyers received the 1½KW Type 2. Both types were provided with at least six wavebands (then known as ‘waves’ or ‘tunes’), and and their operating ranges were, respectively, 500 and 100 miles. Vernon then went on to design sets operating at 1 to 1¼KW on shorter wavelength over ranges from 5 to 50 miles; these were the Type 4 for destroyers and the Type 3 and Type 9 auxiliary sets for, respectively, battleships and all types of cruiser (battlecruisers to light cruisers). The auxiliary sets were particularly suitable as yet another alternative to flags for repeating manoeuvring and action signals.
在1907年时,英国海军已经开发出了两种标准化的无线电设备:一种用于装备无畏舰及装甲巡洋舰的,功率达到14千瓦,通讯距离达到500海里;另一种用于装备吨位在驱逐舰以上的各类其他军舰,功率为1.5千瓦,通讯距离为100海里。这两种设备都有至少6个波段。后来,英国人又开发出了使用短波,功率在1-1.25千瓦的无线电设备,其通讯距离为5-50海里。驱逐舰使用的就是这类无线电设备。战列舰和巡洋舰上也会装备一套短波无线电设备。这种设备可以用来替代信号旗,传递舰队机动和行动命令。

英国海军的各种信号旗

这些信号旗基于1913年版的信号手册的规定,不同年代的手册,规定各有不同。

http://www.warships.com.cn/data/attachment/album/202105/30/005334wnrrnsryzai9lzrd.jpg

英国海军的各种手持旗语

http://www.warships.com.cn/data/attachment/album/202105/30/005334hge3vnz39cg9az0v.jpg

英国海军的各种机械旗语

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英国海军的手持及机械旗语通讯示例

左侧是手持旗语(字母E),右侧是机械旗语(字母S)。

http://www.warships.com.cn/data/attachment/album/202105/30/005333vmasgs67u3myaoda.jpg

德国海军的指挥与通讯

德国海军的指挥和通讯方式,相比英国海军没有本质上的区别。

1. 德国海军与英国海军一样,更偏好集中指挥。根据John Brooks的说法(The Battle of Jutland, P.129):

The German Navy encouraged independent action - in principle. But, in practice, by insisting on the single battle line, on keeping together in the (probable) event of facing a numerically superior enemy, and on maintaining central control of the fleet in action, it gave its commanders, especially those of its battle squadrons, no greater scope for ‘free decision and action’.
在理论上,德国人是鼓励采取独立行动的。但在实践上,他们还是强调战列线,要求在面对数量占优的敌人时,将舰队聚集在一起,并通过集中指挥的方式控制舰队。在这种情况下,战术单位的指挥官,尤其是战列舰中队的指挥官,是没有多少自由行动的空间的。

2. 德国海军的信号旗体系也与英国海军类似。根据John Brooks的说法(The Battle of Jutland, P.62):

The German signal flags and pendants were, of course, quite different in design from their British equivalents representing individual letters and numbers...Yet their purports were often similar in their general intentions.
尽管从旗帜设计上来看,德国海军的信号旗,无论是字母旗还是数字旗,相比对应的英国信号旗都有明显区别,但从功能上来说,这些信号旗的作用与英国信号旗是类似的。

3. 相比于信号旗,德国海军更倾向于使用无线电通讯。根据Norman Friedman的说法(Fighting the Great War at Sea - Strategy, Tactics and Technology):

The Germans used both flags and radio within their formations. In general the Germans seem to have been unaware of the potential for interception, so they used wireless far more freely than the Royal Navy. They were also much more willing to use low-powered tactical transmitters, as at Jutland. The argument in favour of wireless was that flags might not be very visible in a smoky battle environment.
德国海军的舰队内通讯,即使用信号旗,也使用无线电。总的来说,德国人似乎并不太清楚无线电通讯被截获的缝隙,因此他们使用起无线电来,不像英国海军那么谨慎。另外,从日德兰海战的情况看,他们相当热衷于使用低功率的战术无线电通讯设备。相比于信号旗,德国人更偏好使用无线电,原因在于,在充满烟雾的战场环境下,旗帜不那么容易看清。

结论:在战列线战术占据主导地位的情况下,当时的指挥机制,是以舰队司令集中指挥机制为主的。在通讯技术方面,由于无线电通讯技术尚不够成熟,因此英德两国海军均保留了传统的旗帜通讯。相较而言,英国海军更依赖旗帜通讯,而德国海军则更偏好使用无线电。


三、武器对战术的影响

在19世纪末至20世纪初时,海军武器技术的发展速度很快,并且对战术造成了很大的影响。

火炮和鱼雷的发展

1. 在那个时代,想要单纯靠火炮击沉一艘军舰,并不是一件容易的事。根据Norman Friedman的说法(Naval Weapons of World War One; Fighting the Great War at Sea - Strategy, Tactics and Technology):

As understood before 1914, the central fact in gun tactics was that the effect of fire was cumulative. For example, the Royal Navy constructed ‘knock-down’ tables showing how long a ship had to be under fire before she was considered disabled. War game rules issued in July 1913 stated that at a range of 7000yds it would take about 20 minutes for a King George V class to neutralise an equivalent ship, and about 26.5 minutes at 10,000yds....One Hercules could neutralise another in 22 minutes at 7000 yds, but in 50.7 minutes at 10,000...These rules reflected what British naval officers thought would happen in battle.
根据1914年之前的认知,火炮战术的核心要点,在于火炮的打击效果是累积性质的。举例来说,英国海军有一套“伤害计数表”,上面标明了军舰在承受了多长时间的火炮打击后,会被判定为失去战斗力。根据1913年7月下发的军事演习规则,一艘英王乔治五世号(超无畏舰),在7,000码距离上需要花费20分钟时间才能摧毁一艘同级别的军舰,在10,000码距离上则需要花费26.5分钟;而一艘巨像号(无畏舰),则分别需要花费22分钟和50.7分钟,才能在7,000码和10,000码距离上摧毁一艘同级别的军舰。这些规则反映了当时的英国海军军官对海战的理解。

2. 与火炮相比,鱼雷是一种截然不同的武器。根据Norman Friedman的说法(Fighting the Great War at Sea - Strategy, Tactics and Technology):

Guns were unlikely by themselves to sink ships...By way of contrast, a torpedo could disable or sink a ship with a single hit...However, the chance of a hit by a slow-moving torpedo was considerably less than that with a fast-firing gun...The navies of the First World War dealt with two dramatic changes in the torpedo. One was the gyro, which ensured that a long-range torpedo would run more or less straight. The gyro could also be set to turn the torpedo away onto a pre-set angled course. The other was the ‘heater’, a form of internal combustion which dramatically increased torpedo range. By 1914 ‘heaters’ had boosted maximum range from perhaps 1000 yds (1900) to about 10,000 yds or more. Some British ordnance experts suggested that now the torpedo might be used alongside the gun in a fleet action.
光靠火炮,实际上是很难击沉军舰的。作为对比,一枚鱼雷就足以击沉或击瘫一艘军舰。但是,鱼雷的航行速度很慢,而炮弹的飞行速度则快得多,因此前者击中敌舰的概率要低于后者。对于一战时期的海军来说,鱼雷在两个方面获得了重大进步:一方面是陀螺仪,它使得鱼雷能够沿着直线航行,同时还让鱼雷具备了离轴发射的能力;另一方面是热动力技术,这是一种内燃机技术,能使鱼雷射程大幅增加。在1900年时,鱼雷射程仅为1,000码左右,但至1914年时,在热动力技术的加持下,鱼雷射程达到了10,000码,甚至更远。因此有部分英国武器专家认为,舰队可以在交战中同时使用火炮和鱼雷了。

交战距离的选择

1. 一般认为,英国海军试图在鱼雷射程以外作战。根据Norman Friedman的说法(Fighting the Great War at Sea - Strategy, Tactics and Technology):

During the period after 1904, the Royal Navy sought longer and longer gun ranges so that its battleships could fight outside the range of torpedoes fired by enemy battleships...In October 1913 Home Fleet commander Admiral Sir George A Callaghan issued war orders envisaging opening fire at 15,000 yds (if weather permitted), closing to a ‘decisive range’ of 8000 to 10,000 yds where superiority of fire might be established...No one had yet tried really long-range firing. Callaghan called for experiments to determine maximum effective range. The only ones he was able to run before the war were at about 14,000 yds...Both Callaghan and his successor Jellicoe planned to open fire at a range beyond that it which many shells would hit in order to establish ‘fire supremacy’. Having done that, they would close in to fire at a more practicable range.
自1904年起,英国海军一直致力于追求提高火炮射程,从而让已方战列舰能够在敌方战列舰的鱼雷射程之外开火。本土舰队司令卡拉汉上将,在1913年10月时下发的战斗命令中写道,在天气允许的情况下,他设想会在15,000码距离上开火,随后接近至8,000 - 10,000码的决战距离。当时,他们还没有尝试过如此之远的射击。卡拉汉要求进行相关试验,以判断火炮的最大有效射程,但在大战爆发前,英国海军只做过一次试验,其射击距离约为14,000码。卡拉汉的继任者杰里科,也计划在远距离上开火,随后再接近到更容易命中敌舰的距离。

2. 但也有学者认为,远距离交战,只是英国海军火炮战术中的一个环节,而中距离交战,同样是英国海军火炮战术中的重要议题。根据Jon Tetsuro Sumida的说法(Expectation, Adaptation, and Resignation - British Battle Fleet Tactical Planning, August 1914-April 1916, P.5 & P.17):

After closing, the German fleet - with its faster-firing though lighter-caliber big guns, a large superiority in medium-caliber guns, and battleship torpedo batteries - would be capable in theory of inflicting much greater damage. To counter this threat the British fleet either had to develop the capacity to hit when ranges were long and changing, and thus stop or cripple the German fleet before it could bring its weapons into action, or devise means to fight and win a medium-range action without suffering heavy losses from German gunnery and torpedoes...For several years, Jellicoe favored efforts to accomplish the first of the two alternatives, namely, to hit effectively at long ranges that were changing. But in 1912 he concluded that recently adopted and forthcoming new gunnery equipment and methods would not only enable a British battle line to overpower a German opponent at medium ranges but would do so in a way that neutralized the torpedo threat.
在较近的距离上,德国战列舰凭借其口径较小、但射速更快的主炮,大量的中口径火炮,以及强大的鱼雷火力,理论上能够给英国舰队造成重大伤害。为了反制这种威胁,英国舰队有两种应对方式,一是在远距离上交战,赶在德国人接近至决战距离前打瘫德舰;二是在中距离上交战,同时又设法避免被德国炮火和鱼雷重创。杰里科起初偏向于在远距离上交战,但至1912年时,他认为火控设备与方法的发展,能够让英国舰队具备在中距离上快速击败德国人的能力,从而消除后者的鱼雷威胁。

During the first twenty months of the war, British tactical preparation went through four stages. From August to December 1914, the Grand Fleet lacked the material means for the decisive victory at medium range. Admiral Sir John Jellicoe, commander in chief of the Grand Fleet, was thus compelled to adopt a cautious battle plan based upon fighting at long range, which made a decisive action in the near term unlikely. From January to May 1915 the Grand Fleet’s ability to fight the medium-range action was improved. During this time, Jellicoe welcomed the prospect of a head-to-head encounter with the German battle fleet, and he was probably prepared to commit his command to a medium-range battle in order to achieve a decisive victory. German refusal to challenge British control of the North Sea with their battle fleet, however, forced Jellicoe to modify his tactical planning. From June through October 1915 the Grand Fleet conducted a series of gunnery and tactical experiments to explore the possibilities of fighting a long-range action against a German opponent who was unwilling to fight at medium range, while simultaneously maintaining the capacity to fight a medium-range battle in the event of a German change of heart or a meeting engagement in poor visibility. From November 1915 to April 1916, the Grand Fleet was more or less prepared to fight either a medium-range or a long-range engagement depending on circumstances.
在大战爆发后的前20个月内,英国海军的战术准备,经历了四个不同的阶段。在1914年8月至12月间,大舰队的技术水平,不足以支持在中距离上赢得决定性的胜利;因此大舰队总司令杰里科,不得不使用谨慎的、在远距离上交战的作战计划,但这会导致他们无法取得决定性的战果。在1915年1月至5月间,大舰队的中距离交战能力得到了提升;在此期间,杰里科希望能与德国舰队进行一场正面交锋,并且他很可能打算与德国人进行中距离交战,从而取得决定性胜利。然而,由于德国人不愿意用他们的战列舰队,挑战英国海军对北海区域的控制权,因此杰里科不得不修改了他的作战计划;在1915年6月至10月间,大舰队进行了一系列的炮术和战术试验,他们希望在德国人不愿意进行决战时,能通过远距离射击与其交战,而当德国人愿意进行决战,或者在能见度较低的情况下双方突然遭遇时,又能在中距离上进行有效作战。在1915年11月至1916年4月间,无论是针对中距离交战还是远距离交战,大舰队都或多或少做好了一定的准备,具体交战策略取决于实际战场环境。

3. 另一方面,尽管德国海军的战术思想,通常被认为是追求近距离交战,但这并不是故事的全貌。根据Norman Friedman的说法(Fighting the Great War at Sea - Strategy, Tactics and Technology):

The Germans apparently expected to fight at much shorter ranges...they had retained medium-calibre (5.9in) guns on board their dreadnoughts, at a cost in weight (for armour or for main-battery guns), on the theory that the smaller faster-firing guns could contribute usefully in a fleet action. In his 1915 tactical orders German fleet commander von Ingenohl announced that he expected to fight at 6600 to 8800 yds.
德国人显然预期在更近的距离上交战。他们在无畏舰上仍旧保留了中口径火炮,尽管这会占据不少重量,但至少在理论上,这些火炮是能够在舰队交战中发挥作用的。德国公海舰队司令冯·英格诺尔,在1915年的战术命令中写道,他计划在6,000-8,000码距离上交战。

The Germans had to get to their preferred battle range while the British shelled them from greater ranges. They adopted a tactic of evasive action (zig-zagging) while closing the range, on the theory that it would defeat any British attempt at measuring rates. Until about 1911 the Germans seem to have thought that by adopting high range rates as they approached the British, they could avoid almost all damage. Then they realised that might not be sufficient protection. If they could fire on the way in, while the range was changing, they might make British fire control ineffective. In the autumn of 1914 British naval intelligence published the secret German report of gunnery practice for 1912-13. The Germans had recently begun practicing long-range firing under ‘difficult conditions’. The longest range for any of the capital ships was 15,000 yds.
由于德国人需要冒着英国海军的炮火,接近至他们预期的交战距离,因此他们采用了一种在拉近距离的过程中,使用之字机动的战术。这种战术能够妨碍英国海军获取火控参数。截止至1911年之前,德国人认为,这种机动本身就足以使其避开英国海军的炮火了。后来,他们意识到光靠机动可能还不够,于是他们又想到,要在拉近距离的同时,向英国舰队开火。英国海军的情报部门,设法搞到了1912-13年的德国海军炮术训练报告,这份材料显示,德国海军已经在炮术训练中安排了远距离射击的项目,其中主力舰的最远射击距离达到了15,000码。

Once war broke out, the Germans concentrated on the tactics they had developed to minimise their chances of being hit; their mind-set was fundamentally defensive. They employed the tactics they had designed to get them into fighting range without being destroyed on the way, then stopped closing well before getting there. Thus battle ranges were almost always much longer than the Royal Navy had practiced before the war.
大战爆发后,德国海军采用的战术,是尽可能降低被敌方命中的概率,换句话说,他们的战术是彻底偏向防御性质的。他们的确运用了先前发展出来的之字机动战术,但却并没有真正试图拉近距离。因此实际的交战距离,要大大超过英国海军在战前所训练的射击距离。

德国海军在炮术训练中,采用的拉近距离的战术

下面两张图中,展示了德国海军在1913年的炮术训练中,使用的两种拉近交战距离的机动方式。在两张图中,上方编队为敌舰,下方编队为德舰,其中德舰编队由2艘大型巡洋舰、10艘无畏舰、8艘前无畏舰组成。在第一张图中,起初的队形为纵队,随后采取了斜向航线来拉近距离;在第二张图中,起初的队形为纵队,随后展开为3个并列纵队,紧接着后2个并列纵队又分为4个并列纵队,并采取了斜向航线来拉近距离。

http://www.warships.com.cn/data/attachment/album/202105/30/231551rvf0v0cu0v0c01v6.jpg

http://www.warships.com.cn/data/attachment/album/202105/30/231551p0fs40q0h8uj767u.jpg

结论:一战时期的舰队决战,是同时包括炮战和鱼雷战的。当时的人们认为,鱼雷是一种能对军舰一击致命的武器,而火炮则是一种对军舰逐渐累积伤害的武器。在一战前夕时,鱼雷射程得到了持续增长,因此希望在鱼雷射程之外进行炮战的英国海军,就发展出了远距离炮战的战术。另一方面,尽管在大战爆发前,德国海军发展出了在近距离上同时使用鱼雷和火炮的战术,但当战争爆发后,他们也像英国海军一样,采用了远距离炮战的战术。


四、舰队体系的构建

在一战时期,战列舰通常被认为是海军的核心力量,是舰队决战中的主角。但巡洋舰和驱逐舰,同样在舰队作战中扮演着非常重要的角色。这三种军舰,是当时的舰队中不可或缺的组成部分。

巡洋舰在舰队作战中的作用

1. 在舰队作战中,巡洋舰往往会担负侦察、屏护等职能。根据Norman Friedman的说法(Fighting the Great War at Sea - Strategy, Tactics and Technology):

A battle force would normally fight in line ahead. However, line ahead was an unwieldy cruising formation. The British at least expected to cruise in multiple columns. As the British fleet approached an enemy force, its commander had to deploy from columns into line ahead. He had to know the strength and course and position of the enemy so as to make the correct deployment. The fleet therefore needed scouts. An enemy would screen his fleet with cruisers, the intent being to hide his own course and strength. Numerous exercises showed that it took powerful cruisers to smash through to gain this kind of information. In 1914 the ships suited to this task were battlecruisers.
战列舰队,通常会以单列纵队作为战斗队形,但作为行军队形来说,单列纵队却比较笨拙,因此英国海军采用并列纵队作为行军队形,于是,当英国舰队接近敌方时,需要完成从行军队形向战斗队形的转换。为了能正确的展开战列线,英国舰队的指挥官就需要掌握敌方的航向、位置、以及舰队规模,因此舰队中就需要包括侦察力量。同时,敌方也会将巡洋舰用作屏护幕,其作用是隐藏已方舰队的航向和规模。各类演习显示,若想击破敌方的屏护幕,并侦察到敌方舰队的相关情报,就需要使用具备强大战力的巡洋舰。在一战时期,适合执行此类任务的,是战列巡洋舰。

The 1914 German orders...In cruising formation, the light cruisers would form an arc of a circle about 25 miles ahead of the main body, a distance chosen so that the enemy could not get around the scouting line but also far enough away that the enemy outside the scouting line could not see the main German fleet. The German battlecruisers would be concentrated between the main fleet and the scouts, about 10 miles back, so that they could back up the scouts. Once the enemy had been found, the battlecruisers would fall back to a position at the head of the German line formed out of the cruising columns of battleships. When the fleet formed up, the battlecruisers would constitute its fast division operating semi-independently.
根据1914年时的德国海军命令,在行军状态下,德国海军的轻巡洋舰,会在战列舰队前方约25海里处,组成一个弧形侦察幕。这个距离间隔不算太远,可以避免敌人绕过侦察幕并直接与已方主力发生遭遇,同时也不算太近,不至于让敌人隔着侦察幕就能看见已方主力。德国海军的战列巡洋舰,则会布置在主力与侦察幕之间,并与后者保持约10海里的距离,从而能够对其起到支援作用。发现敌方舰队后,战列巡洋舰会归位至战列舰队的前端。当战列舰队完成从行军队形向战斗队形的转换后,战列巡洋舰会作为快速分队,半独立地行动。

2. 除此之外,巡洋舰往往还需要担负支援驱逐舰,或对抗敌方驱逐舰的任务。根据Norman Friedman的说法(Naval Weapons of World War One; Fighting the Great War at Sea - Strategy, Tactics and Technology):

It was generally agreed that at sea light cruisers were the best antidotes to destroyers...The Arethusa and subsequent small cruiser classes were sometimes described as anti-destroyer ships, and they were given large 4in batteries for exactly that role...German destroyer would be escorted by cruisers...The destroyer commanders on their low bridges would probably lack an accurate appreciation of the situation. The accompanying cruiser would keep the destroyers informed of the course of the action, in some cases give the attack order, and also protect the destroyers against enemy light forces.
通常认为,在大海上,轻巡洋舰是对抗驱逐舰的最佳武器。英国海军的林仙级轻巡洋舰及其后继型号,有时会被描述为反驱逐舰的军舰,她们所装备的大量4英寸火炮,就是起这个作用的。另一方面,德国驱逐舰会在巡洋舰的伴随下行动,由于驱逐舰的舰桥很低矮,因此驱逐舰上的指挥官可能无法清晰地掌握战场环境,此时巡洋舰会将战场信息告知驱逐舰,有时还会下达进攻命令。另外,德国巡洋舰也可以对抗敌方的轻型舰艇,从而保护已方驱逐舰。

驱逐舰在舰队作战中的作用

1. 在诞生之初时,驱逐舰并不是与战列舰共同行动的。根据Norman Friedman的说法(Naval Weapons of World War One; Fighting the Great War at Sea - Strategy, Tactics and Technology):

The original torpedo-boat destroyers had been stationed off French ports in hopes that they could sight emerging enemy torpedo boats and run them down, all the while firing at them...The British Mediterranean Fleet integrated torpedo-firing destroyers into its formations beginning about 1900, but as First Sea Lord Admiral Fisher (who had originated the Mediterranean tactics) argued that destroyers should be used independently to dominate the narrow North Sea...Until 1910 the developing Home Fleet did not include destroyers in its organisation.
最早的驱逐舰,其战术用途是驻扎在法国军港之外,一旦发现敌方的鱼雷艇,就对其发起追击,并试图将其击沉。至1900年左右时,在费舍尔指挥下,驱逐舰被编入了英国地中海舰队的编制中。但当费舍尔担任第一海务大臣后,他又认为驱逐舰应单独行动,其战术职能是阻止敌方在北海区域内航行。在1910年之前,本土舰队的编制中并未包括驱逐舰。

2. 至一战前夕时,英国海军正式将驱逐舰编入了舰队,同时,驱逐舰的战术职能也发生了变化。根据Norman Friedman的说法(Fighting the Great War at Sea - Strategy, Tactics and Technology):

The situation changed after Fisher left the Admiralty and reports that the Germans were integrating their destroyers into the Grand Fleet gained currency...To see what the Royal Navy should do, in 1909-10 Home Fleet commander Admiral William H May conducted exercises...He concluded that the role of destroyers working with a fleet was first to attack with torpedoes and only then to frustrate enemy destroyer attacks...May’s successor Admiral Callaghan argued that torpedo attack supporting the fleet was the single most important destroyer mission, hence that torpedo armament should be emphasised over guns.
费舍尔的辞职,加上有关德国海军将驱逐舰编入舰队的新情报,使得英国海军的立场发生了变化。为了搞清楚接下来该怎么做,本土舰队司令梅上将,在1909-10年间开展了一系列的演习。他的结论是,当驱逐舰伴随舰队行动时,其首要职能是使用鱼雷攻击敌舰,次要职能是阻止敌方驱逐舰发起攻击。梅上将的继任者,卡拉汉上将则认为,在舰队体系下,驱逐舰最主要的任务,是发起鱼雷攻击,因此在驱逐舰的设计方面,鱼雷的重要性应高于火炮。

3. 由于驱逐舰既具备雷击能力,又具备反雷击能力,因此指挥官需要权衡,到底应以哪项能力作为首要任务。根据John Brooks的说法(The Battle of Jutland, P.99):

In his 1912 ‘War Orders and Dispositions’ for the 2nd Division of the Home Fleet, Jellicoe had insisted that the priority of destroyers with the fleet was to attack the enemy line with torpedoes, while the accompanying light cruisers were to prevent the attack of the enemy’s torpedo craft on the British battle line. But, when he took over the command of the Grand Fleet, Jellicoe had no immediate prospect of acquiring more light cruisers. Addendum 2 (31 August) to the GFBOs reversed the offensive priorities that he had laid down in 1912: "It is impressed on all destroyer officers that their primary duty is to stop the German destroyers by engaging them in close action." Compared with the GFBOs, the German orders gave priority to offensive action.
在1912年撰写的【本土舰队第2分舰队的部署及作战命令】中,杰里科强调,舰队中的驱逐舰的首要任务是使用鱼雷攻击对方的战列线,而舰队中的轻巡洋舰则负责阻止敌方雷击舰艇攻击英国战列线。然而,当杰里科接任大舰队司令时,他手中的轻巡洋舰数量很少。因此,在1914年8月31日下发的【大舰队战斗命令的二号补充命令】中,杰里科改变了立场,并表示:“需要向所有驱逐舰军官强调的是,你们的首要任务是抵近拦截德国驱逐舰,从而阻止其向我方发起雷击”。相比之下,德国海军的命令,则强调鱼雷攻击是驱逐舰的首要任务。

将潜艇与飞行器用于舰队作战的尝试

在一战时期,潜艇和飞行器的技术发展,恰好处于刚刚步入成熟的阶段。由于它们均具备水面舰艇所不具备的特征——前者可以潜入水中,后者则可以飞在空中,因此相比于水面舰艇,具备非常大的战术优势。在此背景下,英德两国海军,都曾尝试将其用于舰队作战。

1. 对于潜艇而言,参与舰队作战,最大的障碍在于机动能力和协同能力。根据Norman Friedman的说法(Fighting the Great War at Sea - Strategy, Tactics and Technology):

It was widely understood that a submerged submarine could sink any warship, but submarines were relatively immobile. By 1914 the major navies were all interested in the possibility of building submarines which could keep up with a battle fleet, submerging in order to create an ambush for an enemy. Unfortunately diesel engines, the typical submarine surface powerplants, were not nearly powerful enough to provide a submarine with fleet speed. The British sought to solve the problem during the war by using steam power in their ‘K’ class. The German approach to the same problem was to deploy submarines in advance of a planned fleet operation. Both navies much underestimated the associated problems of navigation and communication.
众所周知,潜艇的优点是潜在水中,并且可以击沉任何军舰,其缺点则是机动能力较差。在一战时期,各国海军都想让潜艇伴随战列舰队行动,从而伏击敌方舰队。然而,当时的潜艇所使用的柴油机,并不能为潜艇提供足以跟得上战列舰的动力。对此,英国人的解决方案是建造蒸汽动力的K级潜艇,而德国人则试图将潜艇提前布置到预定作战区域。此类作战行动对航海和通讯都有着极高的要求,但当时的英德两国海军,均大幅低估了其困难程度。

2. 对于当时的飞行器而言,在舰队作战中,其最重要的职能是侦察。根据Norman Friedman的说法(Fighting the Great War at Sea - Strategy, Tactics and Technology):

The German navy became interested in Zeppelins...As C-in-C High Seas Fleet, Admiral von Ingenohl did not use airships to support the fleet, but his successor Admiral von Pohl explicitly recommended airships as cruiser replacements...The official German history of the war at sea commented that in fine weather an airship might be considered equivalent to two light cruisers as a scout.
在大战爆发前,德国海军就已经在采购齐柏林飞艇了。大战爆发时担任公海舰队司令的冯·英格诺尔将军,并未使用飞艇来支援舰队,但其继任者冯·波尔将军则明确建议使用飞艇作为巡洋舰的替代品。根据德国海军官方战史的记载,在天气晴朗的环境下,齐柏林飞艇的侦察能力相当于两艘轻巡洋舰。

The British found the potential of airships so impressive that the cruiser Hermes was converted into a seaplane carrier for the 1913 Manoeuvres specifically so that her aircraft could simulate the Zeppelins the Imperial Navy was about to commission. For their part the Germans were impressed by the demonstrated British ability to operate aircraft from ships...From about 1915 on, the High Seas Fleet frequently took a few floatplanes to sea on board cruisers. At this time the British were doing the same on board dedicated carriers, but until 1916 these ships were not integral with the Grand Fleet. Only at the end of the war did the Germans plan to convert cruisers into seaplane carriers.
齐柏林飞艇所具备的潜力,让英国人惊叹不已,因此早在1913年时,他们将一艘巡洋舰改装为水上飞机母舰,从而在演习中模拟齐柏林飞艇的作用。英国人使用军舰搭载飞机的操作,反过来又让德国人震惊了。大约从1915年起,公海舰队出海时,经常会在巡洋舰上搭载一些水上飞机。此时英国海军已经拥有了专门的水上飞机母舰,但直至1916年时,英国人才将其编入大舰队。而德国海军,则迟至大战即将结束时,才有了将巡洋舰改装为水上飞机母舰的计划。

结论:一战时期的舰队决战,仍然是以战列舰为核心的,但巡洋舰和驱逐舰也能发挥出重要的作用。至于潜艇和飞行器,则尚不具备在舰队决战中发挥显著作用的能力。

seven_nana 发表于 2021-9-12 09:07

本帖最后由 seven_nana 于 2023-2-5 00:21 编辑

附录1:大舰队战斗命令的节选翻译

【大舰队战斗命令】是杰里科下发给大舰队麾下的军官们的一系列作战命令。除了初始版本之外,杰里科还下发过许多修订内容。在下文中,我将节选日德兰海战时的【大舰队战斗命令】中,与舰队交战有关的重点内容,并予以翻译,以便帮助读者理解当时的英国海军的指挥体系。

【战列舰队的战术】

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1、当战列舰队尚未展开为战列线,或正在展开为战列线时,整支舰队都必须听从总司令的命令(能见度很低的特殊情况除外)。但在展开为战列线之后,在烟雾和战斗声的影响下,总司令对麾下的3支战列舰中队的掌控能力可能会被削弱。

2、在这种情况下,就有必要采用去中心化的指挥方式。在此情况下,在遵循总司令已经表明的意图,并追随其整体动向的前提下,各中队的指挥官有权自行决定其麾下中队的机动方式。由于总司令位于巡航队形的中央位置,因此如果需要各队分开行动的话,那么他将会率领第4战列舰中队行动。但在展开为战列线之后,总司令只会率领第4战列舰中队内的一支分队,而该中队的指挥官则会率领另外一支分队,并遵照总司令的动向行事(除非他得到其他的命令)。同理,第1和第2战列舰的分队指挥官,也需率领其所在的分队(除非中队指挥官或总司令给他下达了其他命令)。

3、无论在什么情况下,我们的核心准则是,战列舰队(不包含前无畏舰)应聚集在一起。以中队或分队为单位,对敌方战列线的一部进行攻击的行为,则是需要避免的,因为这种行为很可能会导致部分舰船被敌人孤立。另外,在相似航向下与敌方交战时,整个舰队应形成一条战列线(而非两条或更多条战列线)。

4、总司令所在的分队,是整个舰队的基准点,其他部队的行动,应遵循该中队的动向。在战场上,有可能会出现看不清信号旗,或者命令传达速度太慢的情况。另外,我们也可能在降下信号旗之前,就率先按照其命令展开行动。因此,其余各部队应仔细观察总司令的动向,并对其意图进行预判。我们期望,无线电技术的进步,能有效克服通讯上的难题。

5、在天气良好,能见度较远,且敌方舰队没有先行展开为战列线的情况下,我可能会在18,000至20,000码左右的距离上,将舰队展开为战列线,或者将舰队移动至敌方舰队的侧翼,以便获得良好的开火位置。此时,如果敌方舰队还没有从并列纵队转换为战列线的话,那我们便可对各纵队中的领头舰进行集火射击。

6、有必要强调的是,在交战初期阶段,我们应在远距离上充分发挥我们的重炮的威力。近距离交战,是有利于德国舰队的场景,因为他们拥有为数众多的轻型舰艇,可以有效增强他们的交战实力。从战前的情报来看,德国海军期望在近距离上交战,如此便能有效发挥其副炮火力和雷击舰艇的作用。如果我们的远程炮火打出了有效的伤害,那么敌方舰队就会在发起雷击行动之前,就被我们打乱。在此情况下,我们就打乱了他们的作战计划,而他们则失去了先机。

7、位于战列线前端的指挥官,如果没有收到总司令的命令的话,那么应遵循【舰队交战指示】来行事。在对航向和航速做出调整时,应以整个舰队的全局情况为重。在天气良好的情况下,我们应将交战距离控制在10,000至15,000码之间,并且只有在压制住对方火力之后,我们才会接近到10,000码距离上。在交战初期时,我不希望接近到14,000码以内的距离。

对于鱼雷威胁,我们应始终保持警惕。假设双方舰队采用相同的航向,并且双方的领头舰互相之间处于齐平的位置。此时,如果我方舰队位于对方鱼雷射程之内的话,那么尽管我方前卫不太可能被鱼雷所威胁,但中军和后卫却很可能会遭到鱼雷攻击的。我们认为,敌方很可能已经具备了射程达到甚至超过15,000码的鱼雷。

在敌人被我方火炮重创之前,我不打算接近到鱼雷射程范围之内。但如果我方在数量上处于劣势的话,那我们可能不得不设法靠近敌方舰队,以便使用我们的鱼雷。如果真的遇到这种情况,我会下达命令的。但总的来说,我会设法保持在敌方鱼雷射程之外。在上述所说的同航向,双方领头舰齐平的情况下,我方战列线的前段部分可以稍微靠近敌方一些。可以想象,在实际战斗中,我方前卫可能会不断接近敌方,以便更好的发挥火炮威力,以及发射鱼雷的机会。但我方的中军和后卫,则不应靠近到那么近的距离上。除此之外,敌方火炮的有效射程,也会对我们的交战距离选择产生影响。

8、无论是海上演习还是战术板上的模拟演习,都能够表明,敌方战列舰队的掉头转向机动(无论是同时转向还是顺次转向),是最难以应付的。当敌方采取此种机动方式后,他有可能是希望将我们引诱至水雷阵或潜艇伏击圈中,并且他们的各类舰艇,也都有可能对我们发射鱼雷,因此会导致我们陷入非常不利的境地。此时,如果我们不追击,那么敌方舰队可能就会逃走。如果我们追击,那么我们就会陷入不利的境地,具体的时间长度,则取决于我方对敌方的航速优势。考虑到德国方面可能会带上前无畏舰,因此我方的航速优势应在1.5-2节左右。

9、在舰队展开为战列线后,如果敌方做出此种转向机动,我很可能是不会跟进的,因为在我看来,他们的目的是引诱我们进入圈套。在此情况下,位于战列线前方的指挥官,应仔细判断,到底要不要对敌方进行追击。

10、如果让整个舰队执行顺次转向的话,那么战列线就会变成一根非常明显的折线,这会导致舰队的机动能力下降。因此,除非转向幅度很小,否则我会采用以中队或分队为单位进行转向的机动方式。如果一名中队指挥官,在没有给出通讯命令的情况下就进行了转向,那么该中队中的其他军舰,也都应跟着指挥官进行转向。如果中队指挥官希望以分队甚至半分队为单位进行转向,那么他应该提前给出通讯命令。亦或者,他也可以只对自己所在的分队下达命令。在此场景下,如果情况合适的话,另一支分队也应采取类似的机动。对于我方的后卫中队,由于处于先导位置的是分队指挥官,因此两个分队的机动命令,最好都交由中队指挥官来下达。

【舰队交战指示】

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1、队形:各队应采取纵队小间距队形。但在一些特定情况下,有可能需要采用斜队的队形。使用纵队的好处,是队形容易保持,不易被打乱。另外,在采用纵队以外的其他队形时,必须先给出通讯命令,才能进行转向机动。然而,给出通讯命令是需要时间的,且有时候未必能传达到位。在采用纵队时,则可以在不发出通讯命令的情况下调整航向。

2、领头舰:当两支部队在相似的航向下进行交战时,除非有得到专门指示,否则我方的领头舰,应在不调整航向的前提下,尽可能占据比敌方领头舰略微领先一些的位置。也就是说,如果敌方位于我们的后半球区域时,我们就可以一边缓缓调整航向,让交战距离逐渐拉近,一边尝试占据敌舰队的前半球区域的位置。同样的道理,如果敌方位于略微领先一些的位置,那么我方领头舰应调整航向远离敌方,或选择加速前进赶上敌方。在遵守这项指示的同时,还需参照【战列舰队的战术】中的第9、第10段的内容。

如果两支舰队在几乎相反的航向下进行交战时,如果我们决定要进行转向并咬住对方舰队的后卫,那么当敌方舰队中最后一艘军舰,处于我方领头舰的左前方或右前方60度位置时,我们就可以开始转向了。这样做的话,敌方舰队可以始终位于我们的火力打击范围内。这条准则适用于各种不同交战距离。想要咬住对方舰队的后卫,而不被对方舰队咬住,就需要仰仗高航速。不过,考虑到敌方舰队可能会在其航线上布雷,因此我们也可能不会采用这种咬尾战术。

以上内容是针对编队中的领头舰所写的,并不适用于其他各类情况。例如,当一支侧翼分队,向已经在与我方其他部队进行交战的敌方前卫或后卫进行夹击时,参照以上指示就是不合适的了。另外,这些内容也无法适应所有各种不同的情况,因此这份指示并不意味着要对领头舰上的指挥官做出限制。

3、天气:对于炮术发挥来说,风向、海况、能见度、太阳方位等因素都是非常重要的,因此我们应尽可能利用好这些因素,并避免自身陷入不利的天气环境。考虑到这种需求,是可以采取一些与领头舰那段部分相悖的做法的。

处于下风位置,且风自交战方向的舰艏侧吹来的情况,通常来说是比较有利的。但风力和海况大小,同样也会影响炮术发挥。在风力很大,或海况很高的情况下,占据上风位置,往往会获得显著优势。对于驱逐舰来说,占据上风位置甚至是至关重要的。

在天气良好或一般的情况下,首要考虑因素,是我方的炮口和烟囱中冒出的烟雾,是否会影响到本舰或后方军舰,从而对其炮手瞄准及校射员观察造成妨碍。在天气恶劣的情况下,烟雾的影响就不那么重要了。在这种情况下,下方位置是非常不利的,因为在向上风方向射击时,海浪拍打在瞄准镜、火控指挥所、司令塔等区域,会严重影响炮术发挥。

与此同时,战术上的优劣势考量,有时候必须让位于战略上的考量。在这种情况下,为了能迫使敌方与我们交战,并避免其逃回母港,我们可能不得不接受不利的战术位置。

4、后卫部队:在有必要的情况下,我方战列线最后侧的分队或半分队,可以采用斜队的队形,来提高其炮术发挥效果,或者应对敌方的攻击行动。但是,这种斜队的倾斜程度,不应超过4个罗经点(相较于军舰的艏艉方向)。但是,如果这种斜队无法满足攻防需求,甚至说敌方派出攻击我方后卫的部队,绕到了非交战方向,那么后卫分队的指挥官可以采取他所认为的合适的做法,来予以应对。

5、对抗敌方的快速分队:敌方可能会派出一支快速分队,将我方的部分军舰引诱出去,使其与我方本队分离。如果他们完成了引诱动作,那么其快速分队可以凭借高航速,快速回归本队,并将我方军舰丢在一旁。有鉴于此,在对抗敌方的快速分队时,应注意不要陷入此类圈套。

6、发射鱼雷:在纵队队形下,如果编队中的军舰需要发射鱼雷,那么他们可以采取不超过1个罗经点的航向调整,同时还应提高自己的航速,以便能在发射完鱼雷后回归自身的位置,这同时也是为了避免影响到其后方的军舰。

7、航速:在确保能占据有利位置的前提下,战列线的实际航速应低于其最大航速,以减少烟雾影响,方便各军舰能保持其编队中的位置,并为紧急情况留下一些余地。相比于高航速,在中等航速下,军舰的纵摇和艏摇都比较小,因此更有利于炮手的瞄准(无论是采用指挥仪瞄准还是其他手段瞄准)。

8、调整航向:在战斗中,如果需要调整航向,那么应使用小幅度的转舵,尤其是在高航速下,更应如此,否则的话就会干扰到炮术发挥。

【火力分配】

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(a) 总体原则:

在任何情况下,有两条原则都是必须遵守的:(i) 能对我方军舰造成伤害的敌舰,都应该被我方火力覆盖到;(ii) 向敌方队列中与你相对应位置的敌舰开火。

在战斗开始前,指挥官可能会下达集中火力或分散火力的命令,但在战斗全面展开后,各舰舰长应在遵守上述两条原则的前提下,根据自行判断来切换射击目标。如果指挥官下达的火力分配命令已经不适用于当时的交战情况了,那么舰长也应自行选择射击目标。

在交战时间很长的情况下,切换射击目标是不可避免的。在追击战或逆航向交战的情况下,也同样如此。但在不必要的情况下频繁切换射击目标,则属于错误的做法。

(b) 调转航向后的火力分配方式:

在我方舰队调转了航向、敌方舰队调转了航向、或双方舰队都调转了航向之后,在我方的编队方式没有发生变化的前提下,各舰应该按照调转航向前的火力分配方式,射击敌方舰队中的对应位置(从最前方或最后方数起)的军舰。

(c) 集火射击:

在能够进行集火射击的情况下,双舰集火射击是最合适的方式,因为采用这种方式时,观测炮弹落点时的互相干扰问题,基本上是可以忽略不计的。在能够有效开展校射工作的情况下,也可以开展三舰或四舰集火射击。

如果敌方舰队中有军舰退出队列,那么原本射击该舰的我方军舰,就应该将火力转移至敌方舰队中的前一艘或后一艘军舰上。

如果我方舰队中有军舰退出队列,那么我方的后一艘军舰,在有必要的情况下,应转移其火力,以免敌方舰队中有无畏舰未被我方火力覆盖到。

(d) 对敌方舰队中的领头舰进行集火射击:

如果我方舰队比敌方舰队更早展开为战列线,那么在条件允许之时,应该对敌方舰队中的领头舰进行射击。如果能同时对敌方舰队中的前两艘军舰进行集火射击,那么我方4舰分队中的2艘军舰,应该集火射击敌方的领头舰,另2艘军舰则射击敌方编队中的第二艘军舰。

(e) 双方舰队在逆航向下遭遇时的火力分配:

在黎明之时,或者迷雾天气下,双方舰队以单列纵队的队形航行时,可能会突然发生遭遇,并在逆航向下进行交战 。对于这种低能见度环境下的交战,火力分配应尽量交由各舰舰长们自行决定,我们只会给出简单的建议:当敌舰进入视线范围后,各舰逐次向敌方开火,并在已方位置更靠后的军舰也投入战斗后,将射击目标转移至敌方编队中的下一艘军舰。

有必要说明的是,当双方舰队以并列纵队的队形驶向对方,随后向相反方向展开为战列线后,也会导致在逆航向下进行交战。对于这种情况,在战斗开始之后,各舰都是能够与相对应位置的敌舰交火的,因此与上述所描述的情况是不一样的。

【大舰队的展开方式】

特别说明:本段内容出自1916年6月19日下发的【大舰队战斗命令】修订稿,与日德兰海战时的【大舰队战斗命令】存在一定出入,但整体原则是类似的。

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1、下图中,给出了总司令设想中的,大舰队展开为战列线之后,各参战部队应当占据的位置。在图中,敌我双方的距离被设定为18,000码,交战方式是同航向交战。在实际发生交战时,敌我双方的舰队编成可能会与下图中的有所不同,但我们是按照整个舰队全部在场的情况绘制的阵型图。

2、第5轻巡洋舰中队的位置,在战列舰本队的正前方向偏右侧1.5个罗经点的方位上。如果第5战列舰中队占据了前卫位置,那么该中队同样也位于战列舰本队的正前方向偏右侧1.5个罗经点的方位上。战列巡洋舰队则位于第5战列舰中队的正前方。如果第5战列舰中队占据了后卫位置,那么该中队应当位于战列舰本队的正后方向偏右侧2个罗经点的方位上。位于战列舰队后方的驱逐舰中队,其中队领舰也应位于战列舰本队的正后方向偏右侧2个罗经点的方位上。

3、占据前卫位置的部队,可分为两组:位置靠前的那一组,由战列巡洋舰队(位置E)、第13驱逐舰中队(位置D)以及两支轻巡洋舰中队(位置C和位置H)构成。如果哈里奇分舰队也在场的话,那么第5轻巡洋舰中队(位置A)和第10驱逐舰中队(位置B)也将加入这组位置靠前的部队。位置更靠近战列舰本队的那一组,由一支巡洋舰中队(位置F)、第4轻巡洋舰中队(位置G)、战列舰队下辖的的两支驱逐舰中队(位置I和位置J)、第9驱逐舰中队(位置K)以及第5战列舰中队(位置L)构成。

4、位于位置B、位置D的驱逐舰中队,以及位于位置A、位置C、位置H的轻巡洋舰中队,处于最适合向敌方发起攻击的位置,因此在正常情况下,应当提早前出。当这些部队远离大舰队本队后,那么在其赶回来之前,位于位置I的驱逐舰中队及位于位置G的轻巡洋舰中队,应承担起向敌方发起攻击,或阻止敌方攻击的职责。

5、轻巡洋舰中队的位置,都设在驱逐舰中队的前方。这么做的目的,是考虑到恶劣天气情况下,驱逐舰中队的航速会明显下降,那么将他们布置在轻巡洋舰中队后方,就不会导致后者被前者阻挡了。

6、各中队之间应倾力协同,避免编队变得过于拥挤。但将编队拉得过于松散,同样是不合适的,因为那会导致战列巡洋舰队跑得太靠前,以至于跑出了能向敌方战列巡洋舰开火的射角范围。但如果敌方的战列巡洋舰队的位置本身就大幅领先于其战列舰队,那么我方的战列巡洋舰队也可以占据更靠前的位置。

7、驱逐舰部队的指挥官应当注意,他们不应妨碍到战列舰队的机动,也不应妨碍到战列舰队向敌方开火。这条原则是至关重要的。如果战列舰队改变航向,向敌方舰队靠拢,那么位于位置I的驱逐舰中队也应采取同样的航向。

8、如果大舰队的展开方向,是驶离赫尔格兰岛的方向,那么当战列巡洋舰队占据前卫位置时,第5战列舰中队应当占据后卫位置(位置M)。如此一来,如果我方舰队做出16个罗经点的航向调整(即掉头),那么第5战列舰中队就能对上敌方的战列巡洋舰(如果他们位于敌方舰队的前卫位置的话)。

9、战列舰队下辖的的两支驱逐舰中队,应占据位置O和位置Z。战列巡洋舰队下辖的一支轻巡洋舰中队,应占据位置N。如果有两支巡洋舰中队在场,那么其中一支应占据位置P。如果第5战列舰中队不在位置M上,那么位于位置N的轻巡洋舰中队,应当占据位置M,而位置O、位置Z的部队则应参照其动向行事。

10、在展开为战列线之时,战列巡洋舰、巡洋舰、轻巡洋舰部队的指挥官们,可能无法立刻进入其指定的战位。此时,各部队的指挥官应当自行决定是占据前卫位置,还是后卫位置。原则上来说,前卫位置需要部署更多的巡洋舰部队。如果德国舰队的展开方向,是驶离赫尔格兰岛的方向,并且将其战列巡洋舰和驱逐舰部署在了战列舰队的后方,或者更靠近东方的位置,那么我们应当警惕,他们可能会调转航向。为了应对这种情况,我方的战列巡洋舰队和大部分的驱逐舰部队,也应布置在战列舰队的后方,或者更靠近东方的位置,以便在敌方舰队掉头之后,能够做出有效地应对。

11、在与敌方舰队发生接触后,总司令会在展开为战列线时,以及此后做出大范围的航向变化时,尽量向所有部队告知新的航向及转向的时间,以便让各部队掌握舰队的整体动向。如果总司令没有将大范围的航向变化传达给部分巡洋舰中队,那么巡洋舰部队的指挥官应当承担起这个责任。

【大舰队战斗命令】中的阵型图

特别说明:下图出自1916年6月19日下发的【大舰队战斗命令】修订稿,与日德兰海战时的【大舰队战斗命令】中的阵型图存在一定出入,但整体原则是类似的。

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【战列巡洋舰、巡洋舰以及轻巡洋舰在舰队交战中的职责】

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(a) 总体原则:我方战列舰队的任务,是摧毁敌方的战列舰。为了能在尽可能短的时间内,更有效的完成这项任务,战列舰队应将全部注意力集中在这项任务上,并且不应被其他类型的军舰打扰。由于战列巡洋舰、巡洋舰、轻巡洋舰、驱逐舰、布雷舰等各种不同类型的军舰,都能在适当的条件下伤害到我方战列舰,因此我方的这些军舰,就需要保护我方的战列舰,免遭敌方军舰的伤害。并且,这种保护不仅仅是防御性质的,而是应该采取进攻态势。原因在于,采取进攻时,我们能更好的发挥优势,并占据先机。

在展开为战列线之前,舰队左右两翼的巡洋舰部队的高阶指挥官,负责统辖其周边的其他巡洋舰部队。在展开为战列线之后,则是战列线前后两方的高阶指挥官负责统辖周边的巡洋舰部队。考虑到命令传达可能需要花费较长时间,因此在需要作出决断、采取行动时,高阶指挥官可以直接行事,无需等待命令。

(b) 战列巡洋舰:战列巡洋舰的主要任务,是摧毁敌方的战列巡洋舰。如果敌方舰队中没有战列巡洋舰,或者其战列巡洋舰已被摧毁,那么我方的战列巡洋舰应当担任战列舰队的快速分队,并在有可能的情况下,对敌方战列线的前卫部分展开攻击。由于第5战列舰中队的存在,我方的战列巡洋舰是不需要一分为二的,因为当战列巡洋舰待在战列线前方时,第5战列舰中队可以待在战列线的后方(或者反一反)。

(c) 巡洋舰(指大吨位的老式巡洋舰):在舰队交战中,我方巡洋舰的任务,是对抗敌方的巡洋舰与轻型舰艇部队。在展开为战列线之前,巡洋舰的任务是与轻巡洋舰一同执行侦察任务,并对后者进行支援。由于我方的战列巡洋舰队的实力非常强大,足以应对敌方的前出巡洋舰部队,因此那些留下来伴随战列舰队的敌方巡洋舰,实力应该是较弱的,无法抵御我方巡洋舰的强大火力。在此情况下,我方巡洋舰应尽可能占据有利位置,以便更好的完成自身的任务。

(d) 轻巡洋舰:轻巡洋舰的任务包括以下三类。攻击敌方的轻巡洋舰、驱逐舰、布雷舰,并保护我方舰队免遭这些军舰的攻击;支援我方驱逐舰;对敌方战列线展开鱼雷攻击。

【驱逐舰的战斗指示】

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1、德国战列舰队,很可能会有大量驱逐舰相伴,且不少驱逐舰可能会携带有水雷。此外,他们的舰队中可能还会有布雷舰和潜艇。在交战开始后,他们的驱逐舰可能会立刻对我们发起攻击。

因此,除非情况特别有利,单凭我方轻巡洋舰就足以有效对抗敌方驱逐舰,否则驱逐舰部队的军官们,都应将阻止敌方驱逐舰作为首要任务,而将雷击德国战列舰作为次要任务。为了完成这桩首要任务,我们就必须赶在对方发射鱼雷之前,对其进行抵近攻击。

位于战列线前方的驱逐舰部队,尤其需要重视这个问题。特别是在双方战列舰队处于相反航向,并试图进行咬尾攻击时,德国驱逐舰部队将处于一个能对我方前卫展开雷击的有利位置,此外他们也可能会在其航行路线上布雷。有鉴于此,我们必须在舰队前方安排两支驱逐舰中队。

2、如果两支舰队是以相同航向进行交战的,那么我方的前卫驱逐舰部队的首要任务,是阻止敌方的前卫驱逐舰占据前方有利位置,或从舰艏方向对我们进行攻击。并且,对于敌方可能发起的左右夹击,我们也应做好准备。

3、但是,如果我方驱逐舰部队获得了一个雷击敌方战列舰队的好机会,那么我们也不应该错过这个机会。这个问题背后的本质,是双方驱逐舰部队孰强孰弱的问题。当我们占据数量优势,或数量不输给敌方时,我们的驱逐舰就能较为自由地采取攻势行动。但在目前的情况下,我们是处于劣势的,且德方的数量优势可能会达到二比一的程度。无论如何,鱼雷威胁都是不容忽视的,除了让战列舰队进行转向规避之外,就是要靠驱逐舰部队来反制对方的雷击行动了。

seven_nana 发表于 2021-9-12 09:08

本帖最后由 seven_nana 于 2023-2-5 01:33 编辑

附录2:战列巡洋舰队战斗命令的节选翻译

【战列巡洋舰队战斗命令】是贝蒂下发给战列巡洋舰队麾下的军官们的作战命令。在下文中,我将节选【战列巡洋舰队战斗命令】中的重点内容,并予以翻译,以便帮助读者理解贝蒂与杰里科在指挥风格上的差异。

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以下命令,主要是针对与敌方战列巡洋舰或装甲巡洋舰交战的情况,并且是建立在舰队交战的背景下的。

1、总司令预计会派快速部队去攻击敌方舰队的侧翼,因此战列巡洋舰队需要做好对敌方舰队的前卫或后卫发起攻击的准备。在此情况下,为了获得有利的战术位置,我们不仅需要在接近敌方的过程中全速航行,并且在交战过程中可能也需要全速航行。

2、具体如何与敌方交战,在很大程度上取决于我们要攻击其前卫还是后卫。如果是攻击敌方的前卫,我们的主要任务中,会包括用长射程鱼雷对其进行打击。

3、在交战过程中,我们很可能需要应对敌方雷击舰艇部队发起的坚决的攻击——后者的目标,即可能是我方的战列舰队,也可能是针对战列巡洋舰队而来的——无论其目标为何,我们的反雷击火炮都应准备,在收到命令后应能立刻对敌方进行反击。与此同时,敌方的装甲巡洋舰部队,也可能会作为雷击舰艇的支援力量参战,或者试图用火炮和鱼雷打击我方战列舰队的侧翼——无论是哪种情况,我们都需要做好对其进行反制的准备。除此之外,我们还应为己方的雷击舰艇部队提供支援,从而帮助他们开展攻击行动。

4、如果是攻击敌方的后卫,那么在接近到敌方鱼雷射程范围之内后,我方编队的各舰间距需要拉长到4-5链(即800-1000码),或选择不容易遭到敌方鱼雷攻击的航线。同时,警戒哨需要高度警惕,在发现敌方潜艇立刻汇报。另外,敌方的轻型舰艇,还可能会在敌方战列线的后方进行布雷,警戒哨也需要对此保持警觉。

5、无论是攻击其前卫还是后卫,我们的最终目标,都是对敌方战列线的侧翼进行打击。并且,在敌我双方的战列舰队已经互相交战的情况下,我们还可对敌方战列线发起抵近攻击,从而取得决定性的战果。

6、在战斗过程中,各位舰长的主动性和判断力,是非常重要的。在以下列出的各种情况中,舰长们都可以自行决定其应对方式:

(a)需要由两艘或两艘以上的我方军舰,对敌方进行集火射击。

(b)调整航向以规避鱼雷的情况,或者拉开各舰间距以避免被鱼雷击中。

(c)在发射鱼雷前,做出小幅度的航向调整。请注意,在发射完鱼雷后,应尽快调整航向,并回归原先的编队位置。

(d)离开现有的编队位置,从而避开编队中的前一艘军舰的烟雾干扰。请注意,在这种情况下,航向调整应小于1个罗经点。如果超过的话,可能会在进行顺次转向时影响编队队形。如果1个罗经点的转向依然不足以避开烟雾干扰,则应选择拉开各舰间距。

(e)在斜队的队形下,可在需要获得射界,或需要拉近与敌方距离时,调整队伍的斜度。

(f)除了以上情况之外,如果舰长们认为自己需要采取行动,并且也认为战列巡洋舰队司令(即贝蒂)会认同这个做法的话,也可自行做出行动。但需要注意的是,无论采取何种行动,都不能遮挡其他己方舰艇的射界,或干扰他们的航行。

7、在开火后,应即可能保持射界的稳定,如果需要调整航向,那么调整幅度应尽量控制在2个罗经点以内,且不应进行大幅度的转舵,通常来说10-15度即可。

8、如果遭到敌方的猛烈攻击,可以进行1或1.5个罗经点的航向调整,从而对敌方的火控造成干扰。但在做出规避机动时,应避免掉队、避免打乱队形,不要干扰其他己方军舰的航行。

神教点评:对比贝蒂和杰里科两人下发的战斗命令,我们很容易看出两人的风格差异——杰里科试图掌控一切,而贝蒂则给予了下属较大幅度的自主权。
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