日德兰纪念系列 - 军舰建造篇 - 第五章 - 军舰设计的要求...
本帖最后由 seven_nana 于 2023-3-5 21:54 编辑前言
1916年5月31日下午，英国海军的大舰队与德国海军的公海舰队，在北海东部、靠近丹麦及挪威的区域相遇，随即爆发了一场规模庞大的海战。双方交战的区域，从陆上来说临近日德兰半岛，而从海上来说临近丹麦与挪威之间的斯卡格拉克海峡，因此分别被参战双方称之为日德兰海战（英方叫法）和斯卡格拉克海峡海战（德方叫法）。这场海战是整个第一次世界大战中规模最大的海战，同时也是有史以来规模最大的以战列舰为主力的海战。
关于这场海战的前因后果，各国学者们早就发表了无数的研究文章和专著，其中既有研究战略战术的，也有研究技术细节的。而军舰建造的话题，则会同时涉及到战略战术及技术细节，并且还与整个国家的政治经济情况产生关联。因此，若想从宏观层面理解日德兰海战，军舰建造是一个非常好的切入点。在本篇中，我希望能覆盖到军舰建造所涉及的方方面面的话题，为读者提供一个纵览全局的视野。
索引
第一章 - 英国海军的两强标准
此章介绍了英国海军在19世纪末至20世纪初时推行的两强标准，及其对英国海军带来的影响。
第二章 - 威廉二世、提尔皮茨、舰队法
此章介绍了德国皇帝威廉二世及德国海军元帅提尔皮茨，以及后者所推行的舰队法，对德国海军带来的影响。
第三章 - 费舍尔与无畏舰革命
此章介绍了英国海军元帅费舍尔所推行的无畏舰革命。
第四章 - 英德造舰竞赛
此章介绍了英德两国间的造舰竞赛的前因后果，并就双方的建设成果进行了对比。
第五章 - 军舰设计的要求与取舍
此章对英德两国海军的部分军舰的设计进行了解读，并就设计背后的要求与取舍等因素进行了探讨。 本帖最后由 seven_nana 于 2023-3-24 21:46 编辑
日德兰纪念系列 - 军舰建造篇 - 第五章 - 军舰设计的要求与取舍
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主要参考资料：
British Battleships of World War One, 作者R. A. Burt
British Battleships 1919-1945, 作者R. A. Burt
The British Battleship 1906-1946，作者Norman Friedman
British Cruisers: Two World Wars and After，作者Norman Friedman
British Destroyers: From Earliest Days to the Second World War，作者Norman Friedman
British Submarines in Two World Wars，作者Norman Friedman
Fighting the Great War at Sea: Strategy, Tactics and Technology，作者Norman Friedman
The Grand Fleet: Warship Design and Development 1906-1922，作者D. K. Brown
The Battleship Builders: Constructing and Arming British Capital Ships，作者Ian Johnston & Ian Buxton
Lost in the Fog of War: Royal Navy Cruiser Designs for Trade Protection 1905-1920，作者David Murfin
Es and Super-Es，作者K. D. McBride
In Defence of Naval Supremacy: Finance, Technology, and British Naval Policy, 1889-1914，作者Jon Tetsuro Sumida
Sir John Fisher's Naval Revolution, 作者Nicholas A. Lambert
Die Deutschen Kriegsschiffe 1815-1945，作者Erich Gröner
The Kaiser's Battlefleet: German Capital Ships 1871-1918，作者Aidan Dodson
German Battlecruisers of World War One: Their Design, Construction and Operations，作者Gary Staff
From Ironclads to Dreadnoughts: The Development of the German Navy 1864-1918，作者Dirk Nottelmann
The Development of the Small Cruiser in the Imperial German Navy，作者Dirk Nottelmann
German Destroyers of World War Two，作者M. J. Whitely
The U-Boat - The Evolution and TechnicaI History of German Submarines，作者Eberhard Rössler
在先前的四个章节中，我们陆续介绍了19世纪末至20世纪初的英德两国海军的军舰建造情况、费舍尔发起的无畏舰革命、以及大战前夕时的英德造舰竞赛。在阅读完这些内容后，对于英德双方的军舰建造情况，相信各位读者已经形成了基本的认知。在本章中，我们将对具体的军舰设计细节，做出进一步的深入剖析，以便各位读者能对这个话题形成更为深入的认知。
一、战列舰与战列巡洋舰之间的差异与融合
在第三章 - 费舍尔与无畏舰革命中，我们已经对无畏舰革命进行了详细的介绍。通过这场革命，战列舰和装甲巡洋舰的设计，都完成了向全重炮设计的转变。在第四章 - 英德造舰竞赛中，我们还介绍过，在1911年时，英国海军正式将采用全重炮设计的装甲巡洋舰，改名为战列巡洋舰。因此，那个时代的英国海军主力舰，是分为战列舰与战列巡洋舰两类的。不过，尽管这两类军舰的设计互有差异，但由于都采用了全重炮设计，因此可以统称为无畏舰。
那么问题来了，战列舰与战列巡洋舰之间的差异是什么？在第三章 - 费舍尔与无畏舰革命，我们介绍过，设计委员会给战列舰和战列巡洋舰设定的原则是：战列舰强调火力和防护，战列巡洋舰则强调火力和航速。换句话说，这两种军舰之间的差异，在于性能取舍上的不同。那么问题来了，有没有可能，将这种差异抹平，从而创造出同时拥有战列舰级别的防护和巡洋舰级别的航速的融合式设计呢？
早期的失败尝试
1、当时的军政界人物，普遍认为战列舰是海军实力的象征，但费舍尔本人却在撰写《海军的必需品》时就曾表示过，他不看好战列舰这种军舰的未来（详见第三章 - 费舍尔与无畏舰革命），因此在开展无畏舰革命的同时，费舍尔还提出，想要将战列舰和战列巡洋舰进行融合。根据Jon Tetsuro Sumida的说法（In Defence of Naval Supremacy: Finance, Technology, and British Naval Policy, 1889-1914, P.58-59）：
At the end of February 1905 Fisher wrote to Balfour: Pith of Cruiser - She is a battleship in disguise! She is the coming Battleship. Why? Because of speed! That’s why really only one Battleship. Now elaborating a new design - Get rid of distinction of Battleships and Armoured Cruisers. Simply Armoured Ships!
在1905年2月底时，费舍尔向阿瑟·贝尔福（当时的英国首相）写信到：装甲巡洋舰就是经过伪装的战列舰，就是战列舰的未来发展趋势。为什么？因为航速优势！所以我们只建造了1艘战列舰（指无畏舰，而无敌级却建造了3艘）。现在我们应该推出一种新设计，来消除战列舰和装甲巡洋舰之间的差异，我们只需要一种装甲军舰就够了。
“There is no hyperbole in the statement,” Fisher later argued in the report of the Navy Estimates Committee of 16 November 1905, “that the gun-power and armour protection embodied in the new armoured cruiser design” meant “that no existing battleship could safely encounter her at the long ranges at which her superior speed would enable her to impose an action.” “How far will it be practicable in future ,” Fisher then asked, “to build all our armoured vessels to a single design, combining the speed of the armoured cruiser with the offensive and defensive strength of the battleship?” He concluded that “it is, indeed, so clear that if the armoured cruiser and the battleship could be combined in a single type, a tremendous advantage would be placed in the hands of our Admirals...Battle squadrons so composed would possess a flexibility hitherto unattainable, and a power hitherto undreamt of”.
后来，在1905年11月16日时，费舍尔在写给海军预算委员会的报告中表示：“我并没有在夸张，新式装甲巡洋舰所拥有的火力和防护水准，意味着现有的战列舰无法与其安全地交战，因为前者拥有航速优势，会选择在远距离上进行交战”。他又接着写道：“要到什么时候，我们才有可能只建造一种类型的装甲军舰呢？一种同时具备装甲巡洋舰的航速优势与战列舰的火力和防护优势的军舰？如果我们能将装甲巡洋舰与战列舰合并为一种军舰类型，那么就能获得巨大的优势。由这种军舰组成的部队，将会拥有此前难以企及的灵活性和难以想象的强大战斗力”。
2、费舍尔所设想的这种融合式设计，的确拥有强大的战斗力，但其吨位也会明显提升。根据Norman Friedman的说法（The British Battleship 1906-1946, P.95）：
Fisher initially envisaged construction of a fusion (battleship/cruiser) design, which was apparently pursued as Design X4 (presumably for four turrets). Fusion meant battleship armour but battlecruiser speed (25 knots). To remain within acceptable dimensions, it adopted a new main battery layout: four rather than five turrets, the two waist turrets (en echelon) being triples. The 13.5in gun was apparently considered as an alternative weapon. To achieve speed plus armour plus guns required, unsurprisingly, much greater power, nearly double that of HMS Dreadnought. The ship would have displaced 22,500 tons, which must have seemed a great deal in 1905.
费舍尔所设想的这种融合式设计，代号为X4，可能指的是这个方案有4个炮塔。融合式设计，意味着战列舰级别的装甲和装甲巡洋舰级别的航速（25节）。为了将舰体尺寸控制在可接受的范围内，他们采用了一种新的炮塔布局：采用4座炮塔，其中位于舯部的两座炮塔，采用斜向布置，并且是三联装形式的。另外，他们也考虑过为其配备13.5英寸火炮。为了在不牺牲火力和防护的情况下实现高航速，该舰的动力输出几乎要比无畏号多出一倍。在此情况下，X4方案的排水量达到22,500吨，以1905年的标准，这无疑是一艘巨型战舰了。
3、费舍尔建立了一个新的设计委员会，去研究这种融合式设计。让人惊讶的是，这个由费舍尔钦点的委员会，居然推翻了费舍尔的设想。根据Jon Tetsuro Sumida的说法（In Defence of Naval Supremacy: Finance, Technology, and British Naval Policy, 1889-1914, P.59-60）：
On 2 December 1905, Fisher ordered the formation of what amounted to a second Committee on Designs. Fisher stated that the committee would consider, among other things, “the fusion of the battleship and the armoured cruiser.” It was desired to bring about a fusion of the two designs by the next year.
在1905年12月2日时，费舍尔下令，组建一个新的设计委员会。他表示，这个委员会的研究内容，将包括“战列舰与装甲巡洋舰的融合”这个话题。他希望，能在下一年里，将这两种军舰合二为一。
But the need to develop an economical means of containing the dual threat posed by French and Russian battleships and armoured cruisers had ceased to exist following the heavy Russian naval losses suffered in defeats inflicted by the Japanese in 1905 and the ruin of Russian finance because of the war, which made a rapid naval recovery highly unlikely. The hostility of France’s relations with Germany - the only other European naval power of major consequence - ruled out the possibility of a naval alliance between these two nations, French naval power alone could offer no real threat to Britain’s naval security, and in any case the signing of the Entente Cordiale in April 1904 had laid the diplomatic basis for friendly Anglo-French relations. This left the rapidly expanding German fleet by itself as the only serious potential danger. The German navy, however, while strong in battleships, had few armoured cruisers, and little in the way of overseas bases to supply them even if she had; the British Isles, moreover, blocked easy access from German ports to the high seas, which compromised a German cruiser strategy from the start. In short, by the end of 1905 it was clear that whatever armoured cruiser peril still remained could be met by existing vessels, and that further British big-ship construction should be devoted to battleships.
然而，在新的国际形势下，英国已经不再需要用一种更为经济的手段（指融合式设计），去应对法俄两国的战列舰和装甲巡洋舰的双重威胁了。一方面，俄国在日俄战争中损失了大量军舰，且其财政状况也由于战争而陷入困境，因此其海军难以快速恢复元气。另一方面，由于法国和德国之间存在敌对关系，这两个国家不太可能形成海军同盟，因此单靠法国的海军力量，是不足以对英国的海上安全构成真正的威胁的。此外，由于在1904年4月时，英法两国已经签订了《英法协约》，因此在外交层面上，两国已经具备了建立良好关系的基础。又由于德国舰队当时正在快速扩张，因此当时真正会对英国海军构成威胁的，就只剩下德国海军了。然而，尽管德国海军有不少战列舰，但其巡洋舰是不太可能对英国构成威胁的，其原因在于：第一，德国海军的装甲巡洋舰数量较少；第二，德国海军掌控的海外基地也非常少；第三，不列颠群岛挡住了德国海军通往大洋的去路。有鉴于此，在1905年底时，凭借英国海军现有的装甲巡洋舰，完全足以应对其他国家海军的巡洋舰威胁了，因此接下来，英国海军的大型军舰建造计划，应集中在战列舰上。
The recommendations of the “Fusion Design” committee, whose report was ready in January 1906, reflected an appreciation of the change that had taken place in Britain’s strategic position. The committee argued, however, that the cost of such a vessel as compared with a Dreadnought-type battleship would force a reduction in the number of ships that could be built. Though the committee report admitted that a division of “Fusion” class vessels would be of great value “as a fast ‘Flanking’ Division,” they insisted that Britain had first to establish a clear numerical superiority in all-big-gun battleships before such a unit could be provided for.
至1906年1月，这个“融合式设计”委员会提交了他们的报告，其中就反映出了上述所说的英国海军战略态势的变化情况。该委员会表示，融合式设计的造价，会比无畏舰更贵，因此如果要建造这种军舰的话，那么其数量就会变少。尽管他们也承认，这种“融合式设计”军舰，能组成一支很有价值的快速侧翼分队，但他们还是强调，英国海军应先在全重炮战列舰方面建立明确的数量优势，随后才能建造这种快速侧翼分队。
There is no record of Fisher’s reaction to the report of the “Fusion Design” committee. He was in no position, however, to overturn the conclusions reached by a committee of his own making, which had been composed of many of his strongest supporters.
费舍尔是怎么看待“融合式设计”委员会的报告的呢？我们并没有相关的记录可循。然而，他当时是无法推翻这样一个由自己任命的委员会所得出的结论的，毕竟，这个委员会的成员，有很多都是他的铁杆支持者。
4、此后，英国海军还曾尝试以装甲巡洋舰的名义，来建造融合式设计，但最终也仅仅停留在了设计阶段。根据Norman Friedman的说法（The British Battleship 1906-1946, P.96-105）：
The 1906-7 ships (Bellerophon class) were largely repeat Dreadnoughts...Controller (H B Jackson) added that ‘in preparing the design of the large fast armoured vessel, Fusion type, for future adoption, the dimensions should be such that they can be readily transported and shifted in existing basins in our dockyards and for this reason are not to exceed 600ft in total length’. That suggests that Jackson thought the fusion design was being shifted to the 1907-8 programme, not abandoned.
在1906-07财年，英国海军实际建造的，是在无畏号的基础上改进而来的柏勒洛丰级。不过，第三海务大臣亨利·杰克逊少将却表示：“针对未来会采用的融合式设计的军舰，其舰长应控制在600英尺以内，否则现有的海军船厂就难以容纳这种军舰了”。换句话说，他并不认为融合式设计被放弃了，只是认为这种设计被推迟到了1907-08财年。
For 1907-8 the Board proposed an armoured cruiser and battleships...The battlecruiser began as an improved Invincible with larger training arcs for the two waist turrets, so that they could fire across deck over wider arcs (60-70°) and with heavier armour...the alternatives being 9in side armour (A) and 10in side armour (B, C). A displaced 19,700 tons, B displaced 19,900 tons, C displaced 20,700 tons. A later Legend shows a slightly modified but heavier (20,900 tons) Design D...Since the new design had the same powerplant as the original, the extra features cost speed. The next step (E) was an attempt to gain back speed by increasing power and reducing the side armour to 9in. Compared to Invincible, Design E had more powerful guns (12in/50) and better protection. She would displace 21,300 tons. These might be considered an approach to a fusion design, but retained the thin turret and barbette armour of the original Invincible.
1907-08财年的造舰计划，原本是同时包括有战列舰和装甲巡洋舰的。其中，装甲巡洋舰的设计方案，在无敌级的基础上，扩大了舯部炮塔的射界，并加强了装甲防护水准。方案A的舷侧装甲厚度达到9英寸，方案B和C则达到10英寸，她们的吨位则分别达到了19,700吨、19,900吨、以及20,700吨。稍晚些时候出现的方案D，吨位则达到了20,900吨。由于这些方案的动力水准与无敌级相同，因此在吨位上涨的情况下，最大航速就有所下降了。因此，接下来的方案E，加强了动力水准，但将舷侧装甲厚度从10英寸降低到了9英寸，其吨位则上涨至21,300吨。与无敌级相比，方案E的火力更强（前者采用12英寸/45倍径火炮，后者采用12英寸/50倍径火炮）、防护水准也更为优秀。这些设计方案，有些接近于先前被搁置的融合式设计，但她们的炮塔和炮座防护水准，仅与无敌级相当，并未达到战列舰的水准。
Plans changed dramatically after a 12 June 1907 Board meeting...The projected 1907-8 battlecruiser was dropped in favour of a third battleship...The 12 June 1907 Board meeting sketched the 1908-9 Estimates. On the basis that the fourth improved battleship would complete the two battleship squadrons, the Board decided that the other two armoured ships of the programme should be large cruisers. After considering several alternatives, it fastened on something smaller and less expensive than an Invincible, armed with eight 9.2in guns and capable of 25 knots, with 6in armour (as in Invincible). This a mini-Invincible was faster than any foreign ship, yet capable of fighting the older German battleships. The only foreign cruiser it could not fight was the single German battlecruiser (Von der Tann) and three Invincibles could surely deal with her.
然而，在海军部委员会于1907年6月12日召开的会议上，这一切都被推翻了，该年度的装甲巡洋舰被取消了，其建造名额则让给了战列舰（该财年实际建造的是3艘圣文森特级战列舰）。在这场会议上，海军部委员会还就1908-09财年的造舰计划进行了讨论。由于自无畏号算起，当时已经建造或已经规划好的战列舰数量有7艘，因此再建造1艘改进版的圣文森特级战列舰（即后来的尼普顿号），就可以拥有8艘无畏型战列舰了（按照当时的编制，这些军舰可以组成2支战列舰中队）。在此情况下，该年度的其余2艘主力舰名额，就让给了装甲巡洋舰。在经过一番考虑之后，海军部委员会决定建造的，是一种吨位略小于无敌级，配备8门9.2英寸火炮、6英寸装甲、25节航速（后两项指标均与无敌级相同）的军舰。这种迷你版的无敌级，具有非常快的航速，同时又具备与老式德国战列舰进行对抗的实力。她们唯一无法招架的对手，就是德国海军的冯·德·坦恩号战列巡洋舰，但由于德国人当时只有1艘战列巡洋舰，因此3艘无敌级足以应对其威胁了。
When the 1908-9 programme was submitted, the two smaller cruisers were replaced by one modified Invincible, HMS Indefatigable. The shift was probably made because the Germans had ordered a second battlecruiser, indicating that the 9.2in ship was not sufficient. Nothing in the Cover explains what happened, but the urgency of the change suggests why Indefatigable was a modified Invincible rather than some version of Design E.
然而，1908-09年的造舰计划，后来又做出了调整，实际提交给议会时，那2艘吨位较小的装甲巡洋舰，已经变成了1艘改进版的无敌级，即不倦号。之所以会有此变化，原因可能是德国海军开工了第2艘战列巡洋舰（即毛奇号），而9.2英寸火炮的装甲巡洋舰不足以对抗此类军舰。至于不倦号的设计，为何是基于无敌级的，而不是基于方案E的，相关档案中并未做出解释——这或许与时间紧迫有关吧。
超无畏舰时代的战列巡洋舰的防护水准变迁
受到前述因素的影响，在12英寸火炮时代，英国海军实际建造的战列巡洋舰，都只拥有6英寸级别的装甲防护，因此在防护水准上要远逊于同时代的战列舰。至1909年时，英国海军开始建造搭载13.5英寸火炮的战列舰和战列巡洋舰，为了与12英寸火炮的无畏舰进行区分，搭载13.5英寸火炮的无畏舰也被称为超无畏舰。与12英寸战列舰相比，13.5英寸战列舰在火炮口径上有明显区别，在防护水准也有一定程度的进步，但在动力水准方面则差别不太大。然而，与12英寸战列巡洋舰相比，13.5英寸战列巡洋舰，在火炮口径、防护水准以及动力水准上都有很大的提升。从某种程度上可以说，13.5英寸战列巡洋舰，向着融合式设计的方向迈出了一大步。
狮级（及其后继舰）的装甲防护水准，比不倦级强得多，并且还略强于方案E。之所以会有如此提升，主要是为了与德国海军的战列巡洋舰进行对抗。根据Norman Friedman（The British Battleship 1906-1946, P.117 & P.129）和R. A. Burt（British Battleships of World War One, P.172 & P.234）的说法：
The general design for the new battlecruiser...represented a cruiser version of Orion, although originally it had been planned early in 1909 to duplicate Indefatigable’s layout with some modification where necessary. Uncertainty surrounding the German programme was clarified to a certain extent by information from a private source which reached the Admiralty before any of the British designs were approved. The projected Moltke-class battlecruisers would be considerably larger than had been anticipated, and any design to counter them would have to be much more powerful than the Indefatigable type...the Lion class...gave Britain the largest warships in the world...Side armour was 9in, 6in and 5in, like that of the heavily-armoured Battlecruiser E. However, turret armour was heavier (8in and 9in rather than 7in, as in the earlier battlecruiser designs).
1909-10财年的装甲巡洋舰的早期阶段的设计方案，是在不倦级的基础上改进而来的。但实际建造的狮级，则相当于巡洋舰版的俄里翁级（两者同为1909-10财年的设计）。之所以会有此差异，主要原因在于，在早期阶段的设计方案得到批准之前，英国海军获得了有关德国海军造舰计划的新情报，并发现毛奇级的吨位远比他们想象的更大，因此为了对抗这型军舰，就需要建造一种战斗力明显超过不倦级的军舰。在此情况下，狮级成为了当时世界上吨位最大的军舰。该级的舷侧装甲带，最厚处达到9英寸，与方案E相当；而炮塔装甲的最厚处同样也达到9英寸，比方案E更为厚重。
Lion still had a thinner belt than contemporary battleships...In Tiger, the maximum armour thickness remained the same as in Lion, but was more widely distributed.
不过，与同时代的战列舰相比，狮号的舷侧装甲带厚度，还是有较大差距的。至于虎号，其最大装甲厚度与狮级是相同的，但其覆盖范围要比狮级更大。
1912-1918年间的各种缺乏连贯性的设计突变
自无畏号和无敌级起，直至铁公爵级和虎号，英国海军的战列舰和战列巡洋舰，得到了持续不断的进化。尽管如此，排除从无畏舰到超无畏舰的跨越式升级，其余各级之间的设计变迁，还是有明显的连贯性的。然而，在进入15英寸时代后，英国海军建造的每一级主力舰，互相之间都具有显著的差异：伊丽莎白女王级是快速战列舰（航速比早先的战列舰更快），接下来建造的复仇级却是原教旨战列舰（航速与早先的战列舰相当）；声望级是原教旨战列巡洋舰（防护水准与无敌级/不倦级相当），接下来建造的勇敢级是大型轻巡洋舰或轻型战列巡洋舰（拥有战列巡洋舰级别的火力与航速，但防护水准仅与轻巡洋舰相当），再接下来的胡德号尽管名义上是战列巡洋舰，但却具备战列舰级别的防护水准。为什么会出现这种现象呢？
伊丽莎白女王级战列舰
伊丽莎白女王级，是英国海军第一种配备15英寸火炮的战列舰。总体上来说，该级有些接近于融合式设计，然而其渊源，至今仍然是迷雾重重的。根据Norman Friedman（The British Battleship 1906-1946, P.133-135）和Nicholas A. Lambert（Sir John Fisher's Naval Revolution, P.246-248）的说法：
Churchill took office as First Lord in October 1911. The 1911-12 ships (Iron Dukes and Tiger) were being ordered. Preparation for the next year’s programme was underway. The Board planned to buy three battleships and one battlecruiser. It would probably have consisted of follow-ons to the 1911-12 ships...Once the 15in decision had been taken, it seems that sketch designs were drawn up of a ‘Super Tiger’ and possibly also a ‘Super Iron Duke’...The 1912-13 programme presented to Parliament in March 1912 included four ‘armoured ships’ whose design had not yet been settled...What happened next, in the 1912-13 programme, is not entirely clear...It seems that many or all of the papers surrounding the conception of the Queen Elizabeth class were destroyed, probably as early as 1914.
丘吉尔是在1911年10月时，成为海军大臣的。当时，英国海军已经订购了1911-12财年的主力舰，即铁公爵级和虎号。所以这个时候，他们正在为下一年的造舰计划做准备。海军部委员会，起初打算订购3艘战列舰和1艘战列巡洋舰。这些军舰，可能会延续1911-12财年的军舰的发展路线。在决定将口径升级至15英寸之后，他们似乎拿出了“超级铁公爵”和“超级虎”的草案。1912年3月时，他们将1912-13财年的造舰计划提交给了议会，但当时设计方案尚未决定，所以只是对议会说，要建造4艘主力舰。接下来发生了什么，就不太清楚了。围绕着伊丽莎白女王级的起源的相关档案，似乎早在1914年时便已经被销毁了。
Fisher persuaded Churchill to cancel the battleships projected under the 1912/13 program and instead “plunge” for a new model battlecruiser. In November 1911, the admiral forwarded his pupil sketch plans of a warship armed with eight 15-inch guns, fitted with oil fired boilers capable of propelling the ship at thirty knots and which relied upon extensive internal subdivision rather than heavy armor for protection...The three senior members of the Board—Briggs, Battenberg and especially Bridgeman, were equally opposed to giving up battleships in favor of the battle cruiser concept. Indeed, the first sea lord wanted “to get rid of the battle cruiser type” altogether. He championed the development of the heavily armored fast battleship type which later became known as the Queen Elizabeth class.
费舍尔一度曾说服丘吉尔，取消1912/13财年的战列舰建造计划，并推荐他建造一种全新的战列巡洋舰。在1911年11月时，费舍尔向丘吉尔发去了一份军舰设计草图：她搭载有8门15英寸火炮，配备的是全燃油锅炉，最大航速达到30节，防护方面则是依靠细致的内部分舱，而不是厚重的装甲。然而，海军部委员会内的三名高阶成员，弗朗西斯·布里奇曼（第一海务大臣）、巴腾堡的路易斯（第二海务大臣）、查尔斯·布里格斯（第三海务大臣），都反对不建造战列舰、只建造战列巡洋舰的做法。尤其是布里奇曼，更是想要完全不建造战列巡洋舰。在他的推动下，英国海军建造了具备厚重装甲的快速战列舰，即伊丽莎白女王级。
The Queen Elizabeths were designed for 25 knots. In fact they never made their design speed...What is less readily appreciated is that when they were designed it appeared that they would be about as fast as the German battlecruisers on a sustained seagoing basis...The extra knots were quite expensive: 75,000 SHP rather than 29,000 SHP...Churchill always maintained that without oil fuel the ships could not have reached their high design speed within their dimensions, but the fact that the design was accepted and then converted to oil fuel belies that.
伊丽莎白女王级的设计航速是25节，但实际上达不到这个水准（实际为24节）。较少为人所知的是，在设计阶段，英国海军认为这种军舰的航速，可以与德国战列巡洋舰的持续航速相媲美。与铁公爵级相比，伊丽莎白女王级的航速的确快了不少，但代价也并不小：前者的最大出力仅为29,000轴马力，而后者的最大出力则达到75,000轴马力。丘吉尔一直宣称，如果不采用全燃油动力的话，那么伊丽莎白女王级是无法在限定尺寸下实现高航速的，但事实上，该级最初的设计并非全燃油动力，而是在方案得到批准之后，才更改为全燃油动力的。
伊丽莎白女王级的三视图
伊丽莎白女王级战列舰，配备有8门15英寸火炮、14门6英寸火炮、4具21英寸鱼雷发射管（水下），主装甲带厚度13英寸，最大航速24节。
https://www.warships.com.cn/data/attachment/album/202301/11/222323jqf5ecym3rly383w.jpg
复仇级战列舰
复仇级，是英国海军第二种配备15英寸火炮的战列舰，其设计渊源也有一些不明晰之处，但可以确定的是，该级是预算限制和数量要求的双重作用下的结果。根据Norman Friedman的说法（The British Battleship 1906-1946, P.133-135; Fighting the Great War at Sea: Strategy, Tactics and Technology, P.382）：
The 1913-14 programme...The number of ships (five) was set by the decision to out-build the Germans by 60 per cent. Available funding determined which five ships could be built...which ultimately included the five Royal Sovereign class battleships. The alternatives were: (a) one improved Tiger and four repeat Iron Dukes; (b) one improved Tiger and four improved Iron Dukes; or (c) four Queen Elizabeths or (d) two improved Tiger and two repeat Iron Dukes or (e) one improved Tiger and three Queen Elizabeths or (f) two improved Tigers and two improved Iron Dukes...The improved Tiger would have 15in guns and armour superior to the German Seydlitz. The improved Iron Duke would have 15in rather than 13.5in guns and a larger hull to carry them...Programmes (a), (c) and (d) all left additional money for smaller ships. Churchill considered the best alternatives (a) and (c), of which he was inclined to prefer (c) because it simplified the 1913-14 programme into (1) the fast capital ship for all purposes; (2) the fast light cruiser to destroy torpedo craft and for all scouting; (3) destroyers and (4) submarines...Unfortunately it offered him four rather than the desired five ships...Nothing in the set of printed Minutes explains how Churchill was persuaded to substitute five slow battleships for four fast ones in 1913-14.
在1913-14财年时，英国海军计划建造5艘主力舰。这个数量是规定死的，因为他们要实现对德六成优势。至于这5艘军舰能造成什么样，则取决于能获得多少资金。最后决定建造的，就是5艘复仇级。不过，当时还有其他方案可供选择：(a) 1艘改进型虎和4艘铁公爵，(b) 1艘改进型虎和4艘改进型铁公爵，(c) 4艘伊丽莎白女王，(d) 2艘改进型虎和2艘铁公爵，(e) 1艘改进型虎和3艘伊丽莎白女王，(f) 2艘改进型虎和2艘改进型铁公爵。改进型虎和改进型铁公爵都将配备15英寸火炮，改进型虎的装甲防护水准也会有所提升。在这些方案中，(a)、(c)、(d) 的总预算较低，可以省下一些钱，用于建造轻型舰艇。丘吉尔认为 (a) 和 (c) 都很不错，但更喜欢 (c)，这样一来，1913-14财年的造舰计划就能简化为四种军舰：(1) 快速战列舰，(2) 舰队轻巡洋舰，(3) 驱逐舰，(4) 潜艇。但问题是，伊丽莎白女王级的价格昂贵，因此只能造4艘；换句话说，就是不符合5艘的需求。是谁说服了丘吉尔，让他同意在1913-14财年中，建造5艘慢速战列舰，而非他所设想的4艘快速战列舰呢？很可惜，这个问题并无纪录可循。
The main innovation was that the armour deck was the main rather than the middle deck. D’Eyncourt cited several advantages of moving up the armour deck. Most importantly, stability in the riddled condition would be much better than in recent designs. It was therefore possible to reduce initial metacentric height (GM). That in turn would make the ship a much better gun platform; she would roll much less and also more slowly.
复仇级的设计，有一个重要的创新之处：她们的防护甲板位于主甲板层，而非传统的中甲板层。造舰局长戴恩科特表示，这么布置防护甲板，有不少好处，其中最重要的是，在舷侧装甲带被击穿之后，采用该设计的军舰，稳定性会比原先那种设计好得多。在此情况下，设计师还可以降低军舰的初稳心高度，从而减缓军舰的横摇幅度和横摇周期，使其成为更为优秀的炮术平台。
复仇级的三视图
复仇级战列舰，配备有8门15英寸火炮、14门6英寸火炮、4具21英寸鱼雷发射管（水下），主装甲带厚度13英寸，最大航速22节。
https://www.warships.com.cn/data/attachment/album/202301/11/222325rkzd50d4cx8dhz32.jpg
1914/15财年的战列舰设计方案
在1914/15财年时，英国海军原计划建造4艘战列舰，但由于战争爆发，该计划被搁置了。根据D. K. Brown的说法（The Grand Fleet: Warship Design and Development 1906-1922, P.53-54）：
The 1914-15 building programme included four battleships, Agincourt of the Queen Elizabeth class, and three Royal Sovereigns, Resistance, Repulse and Renown.
在1914/15财年的造舰计划中，英国海军原本打算建造1艘伊丽莎白女王级的后继舰：阿金库尔号，以及3艘复仇级的后继舰：声望号、反击号、抵抗号。
There was also a ‘high speed battleship’ for the 1914-15 programme, submitted 8 July 1914 which was not accepted because of poor torpedo protection. It had eight 15in and sixteen 6in guns and a speed of 30kts at an overload power of 108,000hp (normal 85,000hp). Belt armour was 11in with deck 1½in. Slopes were omitted in view of the width of the boiler rooms.
另外，在1914年7月8日时，造舰局还提交过一种高速战列舰设计方案：8门15英寸火炮、16门6英寸火炮、主装甲带厚度11英寸，防护甲板厚度1.5英寸（但没有传统的倾斜段），常规出力85,000轴马力/过载出力108,000轴马力，最大航速30节。由于该方案的锅炉舱宽度过大，导致水下防护不佳，因此被否决了。
声望级战列巡洋舰
声望级，是英国海军第一种配备15英寸火炮的战列巡洋舰。该级的设计强调最大航速，但也为此牺牲了防护水准。根据Jon Tetsuro Sumida（In Defence of Naval Supremacy: Finance, Technology, and British Naval Policy, 1889-1914, P.290-291）、Norman Friedman（The British Battleship 1906-1946, P.170-172 & P.176-177）以及R. A. Burt（British Battleships of World War One, P.321 & P.324）的说法：
On 18 December, Fisher met with Eustace Tennyson D’Eyncourt, the Director of Naval Construction, to discuss the possibility of converting two recently laid down Royal Sovereign class battleships, upon which little work had been completed, into battle cruisers.
1914年12月18日时，费舍尔与造舰局长戴恩科特会面，讨论将近期刚开工、且进展很慢的2艘复仇级战列舰，改建为战列巡洋舰。
Fisher produced a quick description of what he had in mind: The Rhadamanthus type of Ocean going Battlecruiser 4 guns of 15in calibre, 20 guns of 4in calibre, 32 knots speed, Oil only, Same armour as Indefatigable. What will be size and cost?
费舍尔最初设想的方案，是这样的：拉达曼提斯级远洋战列巡洋舰，搭载4门15英寸火炮和20门4英寸火炮，纯燃油动力，最大航速32节，防护水准与不倦级相当。他要求造舰局长，对这种军舰的尺寸和造价进行估算。
Fisher soon became convinced that he could provide his ship with three rather than two turrets. On 19 December he sent DNC further characteristics: Speed 32 knots. Six 15in guns, twenty 4in guns. Armoured like Indefatigable. All oil.
费舍尔很快就发现，他可以为这些军舰争取到3座炮塔，因此在12月19日时，他更改了设计指标：6门15英寸火炮、20门4英寸火炮，纯燃油动力，最大航速32节，防护水准与不倦级相当。
On 21 December Fisher and D’Eyncourt came to an agreement on the dimensions, speed and armament of the new capital ship. “I fear you have missed my point,” Fisher argued to a skeptical Churchill that same day, about the 32-knot ‘Rhadamanthus’! The only vessel that can ‘catch’, not ‘keep up with’ the German battlecruiser Lützow, of 28 knots.
12月21日时，费舍尔与戴恩科特，就这种军舰的尺寸、航速、武备达成了共识。同样也是在这一天，费舍尔与丘吉尔发生了争辩，原因是后者对这种军舰持怀疑态度，而费舍尔则认为，想要抓住德国海军的最大航速为28节的吕佐夫号战列巡洋舰，就必须要建造这种最大航速为32节的军舰。
The DNC made it clear at the time that it was undesirable to apply such thin protection to ships of such great proportions, but he agreed that features of such magnitude could only be reached if the protective qualities were indeed scanty.
造舰局长明确表示，在当时的环境下，这个水准的装甲防护，是不够理想的。但他也同意，想要满足其他指标要求，就只能牺牲装甲防护。
The ship had a feature new to British practice: the belt sloped inward, increasing its effectiveness, particularly at longer ranges. The greater the range, the steeper the angle at which the shell hit, the greater the resistance.
在防护设计方面，该级采用了一个新的特征：其舷侧装甲带是向内倾斜的，因此可以提高防护效果，尤其是在远距离上的防护效果。因为距离越远，炮弹的落角就更大，因此就更难击穿这种倾斜装甲。
Two units, named Renown and Repulse, were ordered at the end of December. These vessels were roughly comparable to the Lion class in displacement, but were significantly less well-protected, nearly 20 per cent faster and carried a main armament of six 15-inch rather than eight 13.5-inch guns.
至12月底时，英国海军订购了2艘这种军舰，即声望号和反击号。声望级的排水量与狮级大致相当，航速提高了近20%，火力方面则是用6门15英寸火炮取代了8门13.5英寸火炮，但在防护方面则要薄弱许多。
The combination of very high speed and very light protection was less attractive after Jutland...After Renown and Repulse joined the Grand Fleet in September 1916, they were recalled almost immediately for a further refit to enhance their protective qualities...In 1918, it decided on a more extensive upgrade. One ship would use 360lb (9in) armour from the ex-Chilean battleship Almirante Cochrane, the other would have new plating, the newly-manufactured armour was allocated to Repulse.
在日德兰海战之后，极高航速和轻薄防护的组合，就变得不那么有吸引力了。1916年9月时，声望号和反击号加入了大舰队，但很快就被召回，接受装甲防护上的改造（主要是加强甲板厚度）。至1918年时，海军部决定对其防护水准进行再度加强，其中就包括将她们的主装甲带厚度提升至9英寸——反击号换上了专门为她制造的新装甲板，而声望号则使用了原本为智利海军的科克兰上将号战列舰制造的装甲板。
声望级的三视图
声望级战列巡洋舰，配备有6门15英寸火炮、17门4英寸火炮、2具21英寸鱼雷发射管（水下），主装甲带厚度6英寸（改装后为9英寸），最大航速32节。
https://www.warships.com.cn/data/attachment/album/202301/11/222328zls00lccc0blah8j.jpg
勇敢级战列巡洋舰
勇敢级，是英国海军第二种配备15英寸火炮的战列巡洋舰，她们是财政限制下的特殊产物。根据Jon Tetsuro Sumida（In Defence of Naval Supremacy: Finance, Technology, and British Naval Policy, 1889-1914, P.292）、Norman Friedman（The British Battleship 1906-1946, P.178 & P.180）以及R. A. Burt（British Battleships of World War One, P.333 & P.338 & P.341）的说法：
After the two Renowns, Fisher could get no more capital ships out of the Treasury - which was, however, willing to pay for cruisers. He therefore asked DNC for two ‘large light cruisers’, which he later called light battlecruisers: Courageous and Glorious.
在2艘声望级之后，财政部不愿再拨款建造主力舰了，但却愿意拨款建造巡洋舰。于是，费舍尔要求造舰局长设计一种大型轻巡洋舰。这就是勇敢号和光荣号的起源。后来，这种军舰又被称作是轻型战列巡洋舰。
The appellation of “light cruiser” for what were in fact battle cruisers was intended to deceive the Chancellor of the Exchequer. The justification of building such vessels for use in the Baltic to cover a landing of troops on the Pomeranian coast was also a cover. “I had a fierce time,” Fisher wrote to D’Eyncourt on 25 January, “with the First Lord—Very Fierce!—but we are to have two ...if only we can make a good story for the Cabinet.” “It’s on the Baltic necessities,” he noted later, “that we will carry these ships through the Cabinet.”
将战列巡洋舰称作轻巡洋舰，只是一个用来欺骗财政部长的幌子。而将其用于波罗的海强袭计划、掩护士兵在波美拉尼亚沿岸地区登陆的说法，同样也是一个幌子。1915年1月25日时，费舍尔致信戴恩科特，他写道：”就大型轻巡洋舰这个话题，我与海军大臣之间的争吵很激烈，但最终统一了意见。只要能编出一个好故事来忽悠内阁，我们就可以建造这种军舰了“。费舍尔后来又写道：”波罗的海强袭计划，就是我们用来忽悠内阁建造这些军舰的理由“。
The design was, in general, a reduced edition of Renown, with ‘B’ turret suppressed and protection on light cruiser standard...Had it been possible to obtain sanction for further armoured vessels, they would have been a modified edition of Renown.
简单来说，勇敢级就是缩水版的声望级，她们减少了一座炮塔，同时防护水准下降到了轻巡洋舰的水准。如果没有财政部的限制的话，那么费舍尔会建造的，就是改进版的声望级了。
It was decided to fit the vessels with small-tube boilers, and they provided an increase of at least 30 per cent in power over the large-tube boilers on the same weight...They were the first large warships to have geared turbines...With gearing it was possible to use a lighter faster-running turbine without accepting the poor propeller efficiency associated with high RPMs.
另外，勇敢级还是英国海军第一种配备小水管锅炉和带有减速齿轮的蒸汽轮机的大型军舰。在重量相同的情况下，小水管锅炉的出力，要比大水管锅炉多出至少30%；而带有减速齿轮的蒸汽轮机，则能在保证螺旋桨驱动效率的前提下，降低蒸汽轮机本身的重量。
A third ‘large light cruiser’ was ordered slightly later: HMS Furious...The ever-increasing gun sizes fitted to capital ships reached their peak when it was proposed to fit two 18in single mountings in Furious as designed...Secondary armament...eleven 5.5in guns...Furious was completed as part carrier, with just one 18in gun and turret (‘Y’) on quarterdeck. Flying-off platform forward...Furious was taken in hand in November 1917 for further conversion. Her aft 18in gun, mainmast and torpedo control tower were removed, and a flight deck was fitted aft; to connect the flying-off platform (forward) with the landing platform (aft). In 1922 it was again decided to remove the funnel and superstructure and convert her to a fully-fledged aircraft carrier.
再后来，英国海军又建造了第3艘大型轻巡洋舰：暴怒号。该舰计划配备2门18英寸火炮，因此在火炮口径上达到了登峰造极的水准。副炮配置则是11门5.5英寸火炮。不过，在建造过程中，暴怒号被改造成了航空巡洋舰，她保留了舰艉的1门18英寸火炮，但舰艏区域则改造成了飞行甲板。至1917年11月时，暴怒号又再度接受了改造，舰艉的18英寸火炮、以及主桅和鱼雷火控塔都被拆除了，舰艉区域也被改造成了飞行甲板。至1922年时，英国人又对该舰的上层建筑进行了改造，将其改成了具备贯通式飞行甲板的航空母舰。
After a limited success in their cruiser role, Courageous and Glorious were finally earmarked for conversion to aircraft carriers although they would be reconstructed completely, and not in stages like Furious.
至于勇敢号和光荣号，在度过了一段不算太成功的巡洋舰生涯后，也被改造成了航空母舰。不过这2艘军舰，并没有像暴怒号那样分好几步接受改造，而是直接进行了重建。
勇敢级的三视图
勇敢级战列巡洋舰，配备有4门15英寸火炮、18门4英寸火炮、2具21英寸鱼雷发射管（水下），主装甲带厚度3英寸，最大航速32节。
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胡德号战列巡洋舰
胡德号，是英国海军第三种配备15英寸火炮的战列巡洋舰，该级的设计过程，是颇为曲折的。根据Norman Friedman（The British Battleship 1906-1946, P.182-186）和R. A. Burt（British Battleships 1919-1945, P.300-301）的说法：
With Fisher gone, the Admiralty returned to battleship design...In November 1915 the Treasury formally approved construction of a new capital ship. Initially Controller expected it to be a fast battleship...First Sea Lord (Admiral Jackson) was intent to pare the new design down to something affordable...In the end, the Board asked for a design with the same beam, draught, armour and with the armament and speed of a Queen Elizabeth, but to be shortened as much as possible.
费舍尔再度离任之后，海军部又开始准备战列舰设计了。1915年11月时，财政部批准可以建造新的主力舰了。起初，第三海务大臣打算建造的是快速战列舰。后来，第一海务大臣又提出要控制成本。最终，海军部委员会提出的要求是，设计一种三大性能与伊丽莎白女王级相当，宽度、吃水与其相同，但长度尽可能短的军舰。
Great attention was paid to a series of letters from the Commander-in-Chief, Admiral Jellicoe, who had the advantage of the latest war experience. His guidelines as set out in a letter dated 8 February 1916 reflected the following: We do not require to build battleships at the moment. Our superiority is very great and gives no cause for uneasiness in regard to this type of ship. Weakness in future will lie in the battlecruiser type. Any armoured vessel which we are building should be of the battlecruiser type and the need is great. Glorious is unable to compete with the German ships owing to inadequate protection and the same applies to the Repulse. In some battleship designs forwarded the speed varies from 25 to 27kts. This intermediate speed is to my mind of little use. Either they should be battlecruisers of 30kts or battleships of 22kts. I am attempting to use the Queen Elizabeth class as a fast wing but their excess in speed is of very little use and it is questionable whether they can get to head of the line of deployment without blanketing the battle line. Requirements are battlecruisers at 30kts. Not less than 8 guns.
大舰队总司令杰里科，基于他的战时经验，就这些军舰的设计问题写了不少信。他的声音，得到了海军部的重视。在1916年2月8日的一封信中，他阐述了自己的原则：首先，没必要再建造战列舰，因为英国在战列舰方面的优势已经非常巨大了，没必要再担心数量不足了。其次，英国海军在战列巡洋舰方面仍然有所不足，因此如果要建造主力舰的话，那么就应该建造战列巡洋舰。当时正在建造的声望级和勇敢级，防护水准太弱了，无法与德国军舰相抗衡。第三，海军部提交的部分战列舰设计方案，具备25-27节的航速，但杰里科认为，这种不上不下的航速，价值并不大。要么就建造22节航速的战列舰，要么就建造30节航速的战列巡洋舰。杰里科打算将伊丽莎白女王级战列舰，作为快速侧翼使用，但由于这些军舰的航速优势十分有限，因此在展开为战列线时，很难及时机动到头部位置。杰里科对新战列巡洋舰的要求是，至少8门大口径火炮、具备30节航速。
DNC ordered work begun on a new battlecruiser...Six alternative designs were developed. Except for Design 1, each had small-tube boilers. Each of Designs 1, 2 and 3 had eight 15in guns, Design 4 had four 15in B guns, Design 5 had six and Design 6 had eight 15in B guns. Each also had twelve 5.5in guns. All but Design 3 had narrow boiler rooms. That limited power output to 120,000 SHP and speed to about 30 knots. Design 3, with its wide boiler rooms, could produce 160,000 SHP and make 32 knots. As designed, the ship had an inward-sloping 8in waterline belt over the whole length of the magazines and machinery.
在此情况下，造舰局长开始准备战列巡洋舰的设计了，他们总共拿出了6个设计方案。在火力方面，这些方案的主炮配置有15英寸和18英寸两种，方案1、2、3都配备有8门15英寸火炮，方案4、5、6则分别配备有4、6、8门18英寸火炮；副炮配置则完全相同，都是12门5.5英寸火炮。在防护方面，采用的是倾斜布置的8英寸主装甲带，且完整覆盖了动力舱段和弹药库段。在动力方面，方案1采用的是大水管锅炉，其余则都是小水管锅炉。方案3的锅炉舱更大，能输出160,000轴马力，最大航速为32节；其余方案的锅炉舱较小，只能输出120,000轴马力，因此最大航速为30节。
Jellicoe’s requirement for eight heavy guns ruled out Designs 4 and 5, just as the extra weight of large-tube boilers ruled out Design 1. Controller proposed Design 3 as a basis for discussion. It received the Board Stamp on 3 March 1916. Although the preferred Design 3 was rated at 160,000 SHP, DNC pointed out that if revolutions could be kept reasonably low (‘perhaps … with gearing’) he could make do with 144,000 SHP, the figure ultimately adopted.
由于杰里科要求有8门大口径火炮，因此方案4和方案5被否决了。而方案1则因为大水管锅炉重量大而被否决了。第三海务大臣提议，将方案3作为进一步讨论的基础。1916年3月3日时，海军部委员会选定了方案3。尽管这个方案是按照160,000轴马力设计的，但造舰局长表示，如果能设法降低螺旋桨转速（比如采用带有减速齿轮的蒸汽轮机）的话，那么有144,000轴马力也就够了。这也是最终定下来的动力指标。
Construction of three ships (under the 1915-16 programme) was formally authorised in April 1916, the fourth being approved in July. HMS Hood was laid down on 31 May 1916, the day of Jutland. Of the others, Rodney and Howe were laid down in 1916 (9 and 16 October, respectively) and the fourth ship Anson was laid down on 9 November 1916. Only Hood was completed...Construction on Anson, Howe and Rodney was suspended in March 1917, the contracts being finally cancelled in October 1918.
1916年4月时，英国海军得到批准，可以建造3艘这种军舰；同年7月时，又获批了第4艘同型舰。在1916年5月31日，即日德兰海战爆发的那一天，胡德号开工了。另外三艘军舰，分别是10月9日开工的罗德尼号、10月16日开工的豪号、以及11月9日开工的安森号。不过，只有胡德号得以建成。另外三艘的建造工作，则是在1917年3月时就停止了，随后在1918年10月时被正式取消了。
As a result of experience at Jutland it was decided to modify the design to secure increased protection, it having been found possible substantially to improve this by accepting deeper draught and slightly reduced speed but without any radical alteration in the design as a whole. Improvements in gunnery and torpedo equipment, bridge and conning tower design, etc., were incorporated at the same time...The revised design, which represented a merging of battleship and battlecruiser characteristics, constituted what was then a unique combination of offensive power, protection and speed...The result would be a ship better protected above water than a Queen Elizabeth, with ‘infinitely improved protection against torpedo attack’, with the same armament and 6 knots faster.
在日德兰海战之后，基于相关的经验教训，英国海军的舰船设计师，又对胡德号的设计做出了调整。他们发现，可以在不对整体设计做出大幅度调整的前提下，以加深吃水和略微降低航速为代价，来大幅提高该舰的防护水准。除此之外，在火控和鱼雷设备、舰桥和司令塔设计等方面，也做出了调整。调整后的设计方案，融合了战列舰与战列巡洋舰的特征，火力、防护、机动性均十分优秀。与伊丽莎白女王级相比，胡德号的火力与其相当、装甲防护水准更好、水下防护水准有了大幅提升、且具备6节的航速优势。
胡德号的三视图
胡德号战列巡洋舰，配备有8门15英寸火炮、12门5.5英寸火炮、6具21英寸鱼雷发射管（2具水下+4具水上），主装甲带厚度12英寸，最大航速31节。
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造价对比
在介绍完设计上的变迁之后，我们接下来将对那个时代的英国主力舰的造价进行详细对比，从而进一步探讨战列舰、战列巡洋舰、快速战列舰之间的关系。
1905-1920年间的英国主力舰的造价数据
下表中，列出了自无畏号至胡德号之间的所有英国主力舰（总共35艘战列舰、16艘战列巡洋舰）的造价、吨位、以及单位吨位造价。
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从上表中，我们可以发现以下三个现象：
首先，从12英寸到13.5英寸再到15英寸，每次火炮口径升级，军舰的造价也会有明显提升。其背后的原因，是火炮口径的提高（以及其他性能指标的提高）导致了吨位的提高，进而导致了造价的提高。
其次，在12英寸时代，战列舰的价格要比战列巡洋舰略高；而在13.5英寸时代，战列巡洋舰的价格则要高过战列舰。这个现象背后的直观原因，是吨位上的差异——在12英寸时代，战列舰的吨位普遍大于同期的战列巡洋舰；而在13.5英寸时代，战列舰的吨位普遍小于同期的战列巡洋舰。之所以会有这种吨位上的差异，其背后的根源因素则是设计指标上的差异——13.5英寸战列巡洋舰的火力、防护、机动性，均大幅高于12英寸战列巡洋舰；但13.5英寸战列舰和12英寸战列舰之间，则只是在火力方面存在明显差距，防护上的差距则没有那样明显，机动性方面更是几乎没有差异。换句话说，设计指标上的提高，导致了13.5英寸战列巡洋舰的造价超过了同时代的战列舰。
再者，战时建造的主力舰，造价和单位吨位造价，都显著高于战前建造的主力舰。这个现象背后的根源因素，是币值差异——在1914-1918年间，英镑的购买力下降了1倍——若不是因为货币贬值的原因，复仇级的造价显然应该比伊丽莎白女王级更低，声望级的造价想必也不会超过伊丽莎白女王级，而胡德号的造价则远不至于像历史上那么高（可能只需要300万英镑左右）。
结论：英国海军的战列舰和战列巡洋舰，尽管在性能需求上存在着明显的取舍差异，但在条件允许的情况下，他们也曾持续探索将这两种军舰进行融合的可行性。整体来说，在12英寸和13.5英寸火炮时代，英国海军建造的战列舰和战列巡洋舰，都遵循了设计委员会所设定的原则——战列舰强调火力和防护，战列巡洋舰则强调火力和航速。但在15英寸火炮时代，却出现了五种互相之间具有显著的差异的设计。之所以会出现这种情况，背后的核心原因有两个：一是性能要求，二是财政限制。其中，伊丽莎白女王级和胡德号是性能要求与先前的军舰不同，复仇级是财政限制下的产物，至于声望级和勇敢级，则都是在财政限制下，为了追求特定性能而牺牲了其他性能的设计。
从性能要求的角度说，在一战时期的技术环境下，像伊丽莎白女王级那样的，航速介于战列舰和战列巡洋舰之间的虚假的快速战列舰，是没有多大价值的。在对抗战列舰时，她们的航速优势意义不大；在对抗战列巡洋舰时，她们又不足以跟上对手。声望级那样的为了追求最大航速，而牺牲防护水准的设计，显然也是不合理的；勇敢级那样的极端设计，就更不可取了；毕竟，日德兰海战的战训，是难以撼动的。至于复仇级，则只能认为是无功无过的中庸设计。相比之下，胡德号那样的真正的快速战列舰，才是最佳选择。因为这类军舰，可以同时替代原先的低航速的战列舰和高航速的战列巡洋舰的组合。
从财政限制的角度说，性能要求的提高，必然意味着吨位和造价的提高。由于两强标准、对德六成优势这样的海军建设标准，都是以数量而非质量来衡量的，因此在有限的海军预算下，只有建造吨位和造价相对较低的军舰，才能达成既定的数量目标。换句话说，英国海军在12英寸和13.5英寸时代所选择的低航速的战列舰和高航速的战列巡洋舰的组合，似乎的确是财政限制下，最为合理的选择了。而三大性能均十分优秀的真正的快速战列舰，则由于造价过高的原因，往往很难得到海军部的批准。 本帖最后由 seven_nana 于 2023-3-18 09:06 编辑
二、巡洋舰的不同流派
在第一章 - 英国海军的两强标准中，我们介绍过，英国海军的巡洋舰，需要履行三项职能。其一，是保护海上贸易，并对抗敌方的袭击舰；其二，是伴随舰队行动；其三，是掌控殖民地。当然了，这并不是说，每艘巡洋舰都需要能履行这三项职能。恰恰相反，实际建造的巡洋舰，往往只能履行其中的一项或两项职能。在19世纪末时，由于英国海军的主要对手是法俄两国，且对方热衷于通商破坏战术，因此当时的英国巡洋舰，大多是强调通商保护职能的。
在第二章 - 威廉二世、提尔皮茨、舰队法中，我们则介绍过，根据提尔皮茨的规划，德国海军的巡洋舰，全都是既能伴随舰队、又能在海外服役的双重功能巡洋舰。
在第四章 - 英德造舰竞赛中，我们还介绍过，自1910年起，英国海军陆续建造了城级、林仙级、C级等多型轻巡洋舰。其中，城级是既能伴随舰队、又能执行通商保护任务的双重功能巡洋舰，而林仙级和C级轻巡洋舰则是为舰队任务而设计。
除了上述这些实际得到建造的巡洋舰之外，在1912-1914年间，英国海军还规划过通商保护巡洋舰和殖民地巡洋舰，但由于种种原因，并未实际建造。接下来，我们将会对这些军舰的设计，做出具体的解读。
双重功能巡洋舰：英国海军的城级轻巡洋舰和德国海军的小型巡洋舰
英国海军的城级轻巡洋舰和德国海军的各级小型巡洋舰，都属于双重功能巡洋舰。由于这些军舰需要与对方的同类巡洋舰进行对抗，因此在其发展过程中，她们都经历了火炮口径的增长和装甲防护的升级。
1、自布里斯托级起，英国海军的轻巡洋舰，都配备有6英寸火炮。根据Norman Friedman的说法（British Cruisers: Two World Wars and After）：
The Bristol class...The principal role was understood to be to meet the German cruisers...That meant a variety of roles. For the fleet, it meant backing up blockading destroyers against a stronger German cruiser threat. It also meant trade protection...Initial instructions (2 November 1907) were to design a 4,000-tonner capable of 25kts, armed with twelve 4in guns, with the same protection as Boadicea (½in deck throughout with 1in slopes over the machinery)...The Board provisionally approved the version of the 4,000-tonner, but DNC asked for more options with thicker armour decks...In January 1908, DNC sketched a 4,600-tonner with heavier armour (1in flat, 2in slope) and fourteen 4in guns...Controller considered a 4in battery on a ship this size weak; for a few more tons she could have 6in guns at the ends plus the eight broadside 4in. The 6in was considered the natural gun for a relatively small cruiser, because it was the largest whose shell could be handled by a single man, hence the largest which did not require a powered hoist and elaborate loading arrangements...The version with two 6in and ten 4in guns was reported to the Board in June 1908.
布里斯托级（即城级的早期型）的主要职能，是对抗德国海军的巡洋舰。在伴随舰队时，这种轻巡洋舰需要为执行封锁任务的驱逐舰提供支援，帮助其抵御德国轻巡洋舰的威胁。除此之外，她们还需要执行通商保护任务。1907年11月2日时给出的最初的设计意见，是设计一种4,000吨排水量的军舰，其最大航速应达到25节，搭载有12门4英寸火炮，防护水准则与先前的侦察巡洋舰保持一致（水平段1英寸/倾斜段2英寸厚度的防护甲板）。设计方案完成后，暂时得到了海军部委员会的批准，但造舰局长则希望能提升其防护甲板厚度。因此，至1908年1月时，设计方案扩大至4,600吨，防护甲板厚度增加至水平段1英寸/倾斜段2英寸，并搭载了14门4英寸火炮。然而在第三海务大臣看来，对于这个吨位的军舰来说，4英寸火炮的威力有所不足。他提议，可以在艏艉两端各布置1门6英寸火炮，在舷侧布置8门4英寸火炮，且这样做并不会导致吨位大幅上涨。6英寸炮弹的重量，是单人能够搬运的上限，而能够单人搬运，就意味着不需要配备带有动力驱动的弹药提升井，也不需要复杂的装填系统。因此，对于吨位较小的巡洋舰来说，6英寸口径可以说是必然的选择。至1908年6月时，海军部委员会最终确定，这种军舰将搭载2门6英寸火炮和10门4英寸火炮。
The Dartmouth class...The following year the Board asked that the 4in guns be replaced with 6in, for a uniform battery of 6in. The completed design was submitted on 30 July 1909 and approved by the Board that day.
在下一年度的军舰上，海军部委员会要求用6英寸火炮取代4英寸火炮，从而形成全6英寸火炮的设计。1909年7月30日时，海军部委员会批准了具体的设计方案，这就是达特茅斯级（又名韦茅斯级）。
2、由于英国海军的轻巡洋舰配备了6英寸火炮，因此德国海军选择为其小型巡洋舰配备舷侧装甲带。根据Dirk Nottelmann的说法（The Development of the Small Cruiser in the Imperial German Navy）：
Beginning with the Magdeburg class...the provision of a vertical armour belt to protect the waterline, stemming from the military necessity to counter the re-introduction of the 6in (15.2cm) gun in the recent British small cruisers of the Bristol (two guns) and Weymouth (eight) classes. Experience from the battles of the Yellow Sea and Tsushima, at which the largely unprotected sides of Russian vessels had been ripped open by Japanese high-explosive shell, also came into consideration. It was thus foreseen that German vessels might suffer similarly if faced with 6in HE shell. A waterline belt therefore appeared to be mandatory for future ships...60mm waterline belt, with a sloped armoured deck of 20mm thickness behind the belt, were introduced in the forthcoming classes of small cruiser...In its structure, the skin plating was dispensed with altogether so that the armour itself formed the outer plating of the hull; this method of construction naturally required the plates to be riveted seamlessly to each other.
由于英国海军的布里斯托级轻巡洋舰配备了2门6英寸火炮，接下来建造的韦茅斯级更是配备了8门6英寸火炮，因此自马德堡级小型巡洋舰开始，德国海军为其配备了舷侧装甲带，以保护其水线区域。除了这个因素之外，日俄战争的经验，也是促使德国海军选择为小型巡洋舰配备舷侧装甲带的重要原因——在黄海海战和对马海战中，俄国军舰上的无防护区域，被日本海军的高爆弹打得千疮百孔。因此在德国海军看来，此前建造的没有舷侧装甲带的德国小型巡洋舰，可能也无法抵挡6英寸高爆弹的威胁。因此在接下来建造的小型巡洋舰上，都配备了由60mm舷侧装甲带和20mm防护甲板构成的防护体系。另外，这道舷侧装甲带的安装方式也有所创新，他们舍弃了将装甲安装在船壳上的传统做法，而是直接将装甲板用作船体的外壳。当然了，这么做便意味着，装甲板之间需要无缝衔接在一起。
3、自查塔姆级起，英国海军的轻巡洋舰，也配备了舷侧装甲带。根据Norman Friedman的说法（British Cruisers: Two World Wars and After）：
The Chatham class...The experimental firing against HMS Edinburgh demonstrated the value of thin armour against high-explosive (HE) shell, which were expected to be the main means of attack against unarmoured or lightly-armoured ships...It was then pointed that by reducing the first and upper decks, the ship could be given side armour...The design finally submitted on 12 April 1910 showed a 3in belt over the whole length of the machinery spaces, with a 2½in belt forward, and a 2in belt aft (including shell plating).
在对抗无防护或只具备轻度防护的军舰时，通常都会选择使用高爆弹。而爱丁堡试验（详见甲弹对抗篇 - 第二章 - Projectile Committee）则表明，轻装甲带能有效抵挡高爆弹。另一方面，如果削减甲板厚度的话，那么轻巡洋舰也是能够搭载舷侧装甲带的。1910年4月12日时，海军部委员会批准了查塔姆级的设计方案，该级的整个动力舱区域，都覆盖有3英寸厚度的舷侧装甲带，而舰艏和舰艉区域，则分别有2.5英寸和2英寸厚度的舷侧装甲带（这些厚度均为装甲与船壳合计）。
4、德国海军的小型巡洋舰，原本是长期使用10.5cm火炮的，但在得知英国海军的轻巡洋舰配备了舷侧装甲带后，他们最终决定将火炮口径升级至15cm。根据Dirk Nottelmann的说法（The Development of the Small Cruiser in the Imperial German Navy）：
The introduction and prolonged retention of the 10.5cm gun as the main armament of the small cruisers up to 1912 was destined to become one of the most hotly debated issues in the history of the IGN. During the initial years of this type neither Tirpitz nor most others in the service saw this as a disadvantage because the effect of the comparatively modern 10.5cm gun, together with its high rate of fire, appeared to be more than sufficient to engage the existing small cruisers or TBDs likely to be encountered. This would become increasingly problematic in view of several new developments from the middle of the first decade of the 20th century. First, the extended range of the newly-introduced ‘heater’ torpedo called for greater battle ranges, which in turn would render the 10.5cm gun less effective. Second, the size of the opposing TBDs had grown to such an extent that even multiple hits of this calibre would not guarantee effectively stopping the boats. And third, the Royal Navy had adopted modern quick-firing 6in (15.2cm) guns fore and aft in the new Bristol class, this rendered the German ships’ deck protection (20/50mm) significantly more vulnerable. However, the front-line commanders still preferred the smaller calibre mainly because of its higher rate of fire.
自小型巡洋舰这个舰种诞生之日起，直至1912财年为止，这类军舰装备的主炮，始终都是10.5cm口径的。这注定会是德意志帝国海军史上最具争议的话题之一。一开始的时候，包括提尔皮茨在内的绝大多数人，都不觉得这是一个大问题，因为在那个年代，10.5cm火炮是能够有效对抗德国海军可能会遭遇到的轻巡洋舰和驱逐舰的。然而，至20世纪初时，10.5cm火炮的地位开始遭到挑战了。其一，热动力鱼雷的出现，导致了军舰交战距离的增长，而10.5cm火炮的有效射程并不够远；其二，敌国的驱逐舰吨位变得越来越大了，即便被好几发10.5cm炮弹命中，也无法保证能打停这些军舰；其三，英国海军的布里斯托级轻巡洋舰，已经开始配备6英寸火炮了，但马德堡级之前的德国小型巡洋舰，只具备水平段20mm/倾斜段50mm厚度的防护甲板，难以抵挡6英寸炮弹。尽管如此，前线指挥官们仍然偏爱10.5cm火炮，因为其具备高射速的属性。
The development of the 1913 small cruiser marked a significant waypoint in the history of the IGN...in May 1912 the Kaiser had ordered Tirpitz to report about the intended future armament of small cruisers. The subsequent report was drafted by Rear Admiral Scheer, then head of ‘A’. He now openly opted for the 15cm solution, already discussed in previous years, as a response to the first reliable information regarding the most recent British cruisers, the Chatham class, which were reported to be fitted with a waterline belt, the extent and thickness of which was so far unknown. Initially this solution was rejected by the Kaiser and the fleet command, whose principal concern was the unhandiness; in their view a 13cm calibre would suffice. However, Tirpitz was of the view that this calibre did not possess sufficient ‘punch’ against any form of side armour. Thus, the 13cm variant would eventually, apart from a brief oral mention, not even be presented to the Kaiser during the annual autumn report at Rominten, and the omission was apparently not even noticed, the 15cm variant being accepted...The final explanation for employing the 15cm was in the end simple: the introduction of side armour into British small cruisers.
1913财年的小型巡洋舰设计，是德意志帝国海军史上的一个重要转折点。在此之前，德国海军内部已经讨论过配备15cm火炮的问题了，但并未引发改变。然而在1912年5月时，德皇要求提尔皮茨，就未来的小型巡洋舰的武备选择问题，提交一份报告。实际撰写这份报告的，是海军部总务局长，莱因哈特·舍尔少将（即日德兰海战时的公海舰队总司令）。当时，德国海军已经收到了有关英国海军的最新式的轻巡洋舰的情报，他们得知，查塔姆级配备有舷侧装甲带，但具体厚度和覆盖范围不明。在此情况下，舍尔少将公开支持采用15cm火炮。威廉二世和舰队指挥官，起初是持反对意见的，他们认为13cm口径的威力就就足够了，而15cm口径则太大了，操作起来有所不便。但提尔皮茨却认为，13cm不足以对抗舷侧装甲带，因此，13cm仅仅停留在了口头讨论的层面上，但在提交给德皇的报告中，则并未提及这种口径，而德皇似乎也没有注意到这一点，因此他最终接受了15cm口径。由此来看，导致德国海军最终选择将火炮口径升级至15cm的理由很简单，那就是英国海军的轻巡洋舰开始配备舷侧装甲带了。
韦茅斯级的三视图
韦茅斯级轻巡洋舰，配备有8门6英寸火炮、2具21英寸鱼雷发射管（水下），防护甲板厚度1/2英寸（水平段/倾斜段），最大航速25节。
https://www.warships.com.cn/data/attachment/album/202301/11/223708cp4ffco6lpyb6jbi.jpg
马德堡级的三视图
马德堡级轻巡洋舰，配备有12门10.5cm火炮、2具50cm鱼雷发射管（水下），主装甲带厚度60mm，最大航速27节。
https://www.warships.com.cn/data/attachment/album/202301/11/223710zqpeutsdd2apn8cd.jpeg
舰队巡洋舰：林仙级
林仙级轻巡洋舰，通常被认为是现代轻巡洋舰的始祖。与丘吉尔担任海军大臣期间建造的不少军舰的情况类似，林仙级轻巡洋舰的起源，也是不太明晰的。根据Norman Friedman的说法（British Cruisers: Two World Wars and After, P.38 & P.40-42 & P.336）：
Churchill was nominally responsible for the main features of the ships of the 1912/13 programme, including the Queen Elizabeth class battleships and the Arethusa class cruisers. It is not clear who advised Churchill. Both classes emphasised speed. The new ‘Town’ class cruisers were not fast enough to deal with German destroyers, and so early in 1912 Churchill verbally instructed DNC Philip Watts to develop a new fast light cruiser to deal with German destroyers. The DNC Department First World War cruiser history, dated October 1918, attributes the new ship to the considerable interest aroused in the autumn of 1911 by the new Italian cruiser Quarto, which achieved 28kts although she was about the same size as the earlier British Boadicea (25kts). In effect Quarto demonstrated that a small ship could combine the performance of new seagoing destroyers with cruiser protection and firepower.
1912/13财年建造的伊丽莎白女王级战列舰和林仙级轻巡洋舰，都以高航速而著称。尽管在名义上，这些军舰的主要特征，是由丘吉尔负责的，但林仙级的实际倡议人到底是谁，我们并不清楚。由于城级轻巡洋舰的航速，不足以对抗德国驱逐舰，因此在1912年初时，丘吉尔口头授意造舰局长瓦茨，设计一种具备高航速、能对抗德国驱逐舰的新式轻巡洋舰。而造舰局编写的一战巡洋舰史，则将林仙级的起源归功于意大利海军的夸尔托号轻巡洋舰。该舰的最大航速达到28节，但其吨位却与英国海军的博阿迪西亚级侦察巡洋舰相当（后者最大航速仅为25节）。这艘军舰，引发了英国人的浓厚兴趣。她的出现表明，如今的轻巡洋舰，已经可以同时具备驱逐舰的航速及巡洋舰的火力与防护了。
An internal DNC memo dated 29 February 1912 instructed the DNC staff to push the design as quickly as possible, with an armament, if possible, of twelve 4in guns. A sketch design for the all-4in ship was submitted in March 1912...The Board approved the design on 7 July 1912 (DNC submitted it on 1 July). This version showed ten 4in QF guns...About November 1912 the First Lord (Churchill) decided to substitute single 6in guns for the paired (abreast) 4in guns at the ends of the ship...The rapidly-fired 4in gun was considered ideal as a destroyer-killer, but the 6in was wanted to deal with enemy cruisers which might support destroyer attacks...The change left the ships with two 6in and six 4in, the latter in the waist at upper deck level.
1912年2月29日的一份造舰局内部备忘录显示，造舰局长授意其团队，尽快开展这种军舰的设计工作。在武备方面，希望能搭载尽可能多的火炮，最好能搭载12门4英寸火炮。3月份时，造舰局完成了全4英寸火炮设计的草案。至1912年7月1日时，造舰局长将设计方案提交给了海军部委员会，后者于7月7日时批准了方案。这个方案，搭载有10门4英寸火炮。大约在1912年11月时，丘吉尔决定将舰艏和舰艉的4门4英寸火炮，改为2门6英寸火炮，而舰体舯部的4英寸火炮则予以保留。4英寸火炮的射速很快，是用来对抗敌方驱逐舰的。而6英寸火炮则能够对抗敌方派来支援驱逐舰的巡洋舰。在调整武备之后，该级的火炮配置变为2门6英寸火炮和6门4英寸火炮。
According to a 20 November 1912 note by DNO to Third Sea Lord, the modification was in response to (undated) verbal instructions. DNC wrote that ‘personally I always favoured this arrangement - I do not attach very great importance to the mixed armament theory of objections in these small craft but armed as at present designed they are merely large destroyers and could not face a cruiser with one 6in gun’.
根据1912年12月20日的一份由军械局长写给第三海务大臣的纸条，更换火炮配置这件事，也是口头授意的。造舰局长则记录道：“就我个人而言，我一直是偏好这种火炮配置的”。对于这种轻型舰艇来说，混合口径火炮不利于火控的说法，我认为并不重要。但如果采用全4英寸火炮配置的话，那这种军舰就与大型驱逐舰无异了，且完全无法对抗拥有6英寸火炮的巡洋舰。
To save hull weight, the armour was incorporated into the hull strength, a 2in outer layer covering the 1in hull plates, which had not been done in the ‘Town’ class...The combined structural and protective arrangements became standard for the First World War British light cruisers derived from the Arethusa class.
另外，为了降低舰体重量，林仙级采用了舷侧装甲带参与舰体结构强度的设计，其外层部分是2英寸厚度的装甲、内层部分则是1英寸厚度的船壳。这种设计，与城级是不同的。这种将装甲融入舰体结构的设计，在后续的英国轻巡洋舰上得到了延续。
林仙级的三视图
林仙级轻巡洋舰，配备有2门6英寸火炮、6门4英寸火炮、4具21英寸鱼雷发射管（水上），主装甲带厚度3英寸，最大航速28.5节。
https://www.warships.com.cn/data/attachment/album/202301/11/223712wacgogsacdcbx57a.jpg
舰队巡洋舰：C级
C级，是林仙级的后继舰，是一系列舰名首字母为C的轻巡洋舰的统称，具体又可分为早期型（卡洛琳级、卡利俄佩级、坎布里安级）、中期型（半人马级、卡列登级）和晚期型（刻瑞斯级、开普敦级）三类。C级的早中晚期的设计变迁过程，很大程度上就是一部轻巡洋舰武备配置的变迁史。根据Norman Friedman（British Cruisers: Two World Wars and After, P.42 & P.47-50 & P.53-54）和D. K. Brown（The Grand Fleet: Warship Design and Development 1906-1922, P.101-102）的说法：
Eight more ships, slightly modified, were ordered under the 1913/14 programme as the Calliope class/Caroline class. Compared to the Arethusa class, these ships had two more 4in guns. According to the DNC First World War cruiser history, an alternative armament of five (later six) 6in guns was proposed and rejected...Calliope and Champion were built with submerged (rather than deck) torpedo tubes. The change was particularly attractive because the twin deck tubes limited the firing arcs of the aftermost 4in guns...The 1914/15 programme was reduced to four light cruisers (Cambrian class), repeat versions of Calliope herself. When war broke out in 1914 the planned 1915/16 programme was eight cruisers. In fact only two ships were ordered during the autumn of 1914.
在1913/14财年时，英国海军建造了8艘轻巡洋舰（6艘卡洛琳级和2艘卡利俄佩级轻巡洋舰）。与林仙级相比，这些军舰的4英寸火炮增加了2门（即总共8门）。根据造舰局编写的一战巡洋舰史，在设计阶段时，他们考虑过配备5门或6门6英寸火炮的方案，但被驳回了。与采用4具水上鱼雷发射管的卡洛琳级不同的是，卡利俄佩级采用的是2具水下鱼雷发射管。这种设计变更颇受欢迎，因为卡洛琳级上的水上鱼雷发射管，会阻挡最靠近舰艉的那对4英寸火炮的射界。1914/15财年时建造的4艘坎布里安级，设计与卡利俄佩级类似。1915/16财年的造舰计划，原本包括8艘轻巡洋舰，但至1914年秋天时，被缩减到了2艘（即后来的半人马级）。
Once war broke out, the two vital issues were gun and torpedo armament. Experience at Heligoland Bight convinced Captain Nicholson of HMS Aurora that his 4in guns were useless, hence that future light cruisers should be armed only with 6in guns. In November 1914 he sent a paper to this effect via an enthusiastic Commodore (T) Tyrwhitt of the Harwich Force. He sketched an arrangement offering a total of five, all on the centreline.
大战爆发之后，火炮和鱼雷配置，成了巡洋舰设计的最重要的两个话题。基于赫尔格兰湾海战的经验，奥罗拉号轻巡洋舰的舰长尼科尔森上校认为，他的坐舰（林仙级轻巡洋舰）上的4英寸火炮是无用的，因此以后建造的轻巡洋舰，都应该采用全6英寸火炮的设计。1914年11月时，他基于这个论点写了一篇文章，经由哈里奇分舰队的指挥官蒂里特准将，转交给了海军部。在这篇文章中，他附上了一份火炮布置的草图，上面画的是全中线布置的5门6英寸火炮。
The Controller (Rear Admiral F C T Tudor), who had lived through the Calliope design, was less than enthusiastic. These were special-purpose ships, intended to operate with and against destroyers and other light craft, and likely to have to fight several ships at the same time. Tudor was undoubtedly aware that his preference for a mixed armament might make it appear that he opposed single-calibre battleships (dreadnoughts) - Fisher had recently returned as First Sea Lord, and would hate to be reminded of the opposition to his great innovation of less than a decade earlier. Thus Tudor pointed out that he personally favoured one-calibre armament for ships intended to fight either single-ship or fleet actions, as that simplified both fire control and ammunition supply. Tudor saw Nicholson’s proposal as one of a series of cycles in cruiser design in which single large-calibre armament superseded mixed armament, the latest being the shift from the Bristol to the Birmingham classes. Tudor felt that a 4in gun could be manoeuvred rapidly enough to make up for the ship’s motion, but a 6in could not. He suspected that the dividing line between effective and ineffective was half-way between, meaning a 5in or 60pdr gun.
第三海务大臣弗雷德里克·都铎少将，对尼科尔森上校的提议并不太来电，因为他经历过卡洛琳级的设计过程（即全6英寸火炮方案被否决的过程）。在他看来，这是一种特化的军舰设计，其职能是伴随驱逐舰行动，并对抗敌方的驱逐舰或其他轻型舰艇，且可能需要同时与多艘敌舰交战。当然了，都铎也明白，在旁人眼中，他对混合口径火炮的偏爱，可能会意味着他对全重炮设计的战列舰（无畏舰）持反对态度。当时，费舍尔刚刚重返第一海务大臣的岗位，而无畏舰恰恰就是费舍尔最伟大的创新，因此费舍尔显然是不喜欢听到有人反对统一口径火炮的。在这种情况下，都铎表示，对于打算在单挑或舰队决战环境下使用的军舰，他个人是支持统一口径火炮的，因为这样做能降低火控和弹药供应的复杂程度。另外，在都铎看来，尼科尔森的这种提议，在巡洋舰设计上已经不是新鲜事了，上一次出现这种情况，是布里斯托尔级（早期型城级）的混合口径火炮设计，被伯明翰级（中期型城级）的统一口径火炮设计所取代。都铎还认为，保留4英寸火炮的原因，是这种火炮的操作较为灵便，在船体摇晃幅度很大的情况下也能使用，而6英寸火炮则不能。因此在他看来，介于4英寸和6英寸之间的火炮，即口径为5英寸、或弹重为60磅的火炮，是这种环境下的口径上限（4英寸火炮的弹重为31磅，6英寸的则为100磅）。
Fisher and Churchill both strongly favoured the all-big-gun armament, and it was adopted for the two repeat Calliopes, HMS Centaur and HMS Concord.
然而，费舍尔和丘吉尔都强烈支持统一口径火炮，因此在2艘半人马级上，英国人采用了这种设计。
Four (originally six) Caledon class were ordered in December 1915...This class was conceived as a slightly modified repeat Centaur with new geared-turbine machinery...Admiral Jellicoe, the Grand Fleet commander, had been pressing for two twin above-water tubes on each side as early as December 1915. He had little faith in any attempt to reload at sea, and with two sets of tubes on each side all torpedoes would be ready for immediate firing. Jellicoe pointed out that his Grand Fleet Battle Orders placed particular stress on the duty of light cruisers to attack the enemy battle line with torpedoes...By March 1916 Controller had acceded. First Sea Lord (Admiral Jackson) approved the pair of twin tubes on each side.
1915年12月时，英国海军订购了6艘卡列登级轻巡洋舰（后来调整为4艘）。原本他们只打算在半人马级的基础上做出少许调整，并换用带有减速齿轮的蒸汽轮机。然而，大舰队总司令杰里科上将却提出，希望将轻巡洋舰的鱼雷配置，改为4座联装水上发射管。在杰里科看来，在战斗状态下对水下发射管进行再装填，是不太可行的。而如果配备4座水上发射管，那就能在短时间内射出所有鱼雷。杰里科指出，他的【大舰队战斗命令】，非常强调轻巡洋舰用鱼雷攻击敌方战列线的职能。1916年3月时，第三海务大臣（弗雷德里克·都铎少将）同意了这个要求，随后第一海务大臣（亨利·杰克逊上将）批准了这个改动。
The five cruisers of the Ceres class, ordered in March-April 1916, were redesigned; the second 6in gun was mounted in a superfiring position forward...The five Capetowns of June-July 1917 were near repeats of the Ceres.
1916年3-4月间订购的5艘刻瑞斯级轻巡洋舰，其舰艏区域的2门火炮，采用了背负式设计。1917年6-7月间订购的5艘开普敦级，火炮配置与刻瑞斯级类似。
晚期型C级的三视图
晚期型的C级轻巡洋舰，配备有5门6英寸火炮、8具21英寸鱼雷发射管（水上），主装甲带厚度3英寸，最大航速29节。
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英国海军技术史中对林仙级/早期型C级的火炮配置及其变更情况的描述
除了在新建造的C级轻巡洋舰上改动武备之外，在已经建成的林仙级和C级轻巡洋舰上，英国海军也对其武备进行了调整。以下内容是英国海军官方技术史对这个话题的描述。
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林仙级之前的英国轻巡洋舰，吨位是逐级增长的，但航速始终保持在25节左右。相比之下，林仙级的吨位要轻得多，并且其航速也提高到了28.5节。
林仙级的火炮配置，由2门6英寸火炮和6门4英寸火炮构成，其中6英寸火炮分别置于舰艏和舰艉，而4英寸火炮则分别列于两舷。
作为林仙级的后继舰型，早期型C级（6艘卡罗琳级、2艘卡利俄佩级、4艘坎布里安级）的火炮布局有所调整，将原先安装在艏楼上的6英寸火炮挪到了后甲板，2门6英寸火炮呈了背负式布局，而艏楼处则并排安装了2门4英寸火炮，因此火炮总数增至2门6英寸火炮和8门4英寸火炮。之所以会采用这种火炮布局，一方面是为了能在恶劣天气、或舰艏上浪明显的环境下使用6英寸火炮，另一方面则是出于中央火控的考虑。
这些军舰的火炮配置设计，遭到了较多批评，因此在1915年时，有人提议，将其舰艏处的2门4英寸火炮，替换为1门6英寸火炮，其理由如下：
（1）根据开战以来的经验，6英寸火炮明显要优于4英寸火炮，前者的射程要比后者远得多，且在对抗无装甲或轻装甲目标时，前者的毁伤效果也比后者强得多。
（2）大部分的德国轻巡洋舰装备的都是10.5cm火炮，这些火炮的射程要比我们的4英寸QF Mark V型火炮更远。
（3）当时我们已收到情报，最新的德国轻巡洋舰将会装备15cm火炮，而他们的较老的轻巡洋舰，甚至是部分驱逐舰，都有可能会换装口径大于10.5cm的火炮。
（4）尽管C级轻巡洋舰的吨位不大，但却是优秀的炮术平台，完全可以再搭载一门6英寸火炮，以加强火力。
1916年6月时，海军部决定，将早期型C级的舰艏处的2门4英寸火炮，替换为1门6英寸火炮。但林仙级则不做改动。
另一方面，林仙级和早期型C级，在设计阶段并未配备高射炮，但在开战之后，都增配了1门3磅高射炮。至1916年时，为了增强防空火力，海军部决定用1门4英寸高射炮，替换原先搭载的3磅高射炮。
在日德兰海战之后，大舰队总司令杰里科上将提出，要加强林仙级和C级的鱼雷火力。起初，海军部打算将备用鱼雷的储存位置，从舰体内部挪到露天甲板上来。但后来，他们决定为这些军舰增设2座联装水上发射管。对于C级来说，为了实现这样的改造，需要拆除2门4英寸火炮。
在1916-17年间，上述的这三项改造工作，得到了落实。对于早期型C级需要拆除2门4英寸火炮这件事，舰队中出现了一些抱怨的声音，但考虑到舰艇的稳定性问题，这2门火炮是必须要拆除的。
1916年10月时，哈里奇分舰队的指挥官提出，应将早期型C级（卡罗琳级、卡利俄佩级、坎布里安级）的舰体舯部区域的4英寸火炮（包括高射炮）全部拆除，并在原先安装高射炮的位置上增设1门6英寸火炮。另外，舰桥后方的2门4英寸火炮，则应改为4英寸高射炮。
另外，考虑到德国轻巡洋舰的火炮射程比英国火炮更远，且交战距离有越变越远的趋势，因此英国海军还打算将火炮的最大仰角，从15度提升至20度。
在综合考虑了武备重量、舰体稳定性等问题后，在1918年时，海军部对林仙级和早期型C级的武备进行了第二次改造。
对于林仙级，原本他们打算拆除6门4英寸火炮，并增设2门6英寸火炮。但这样一来，就需要对上层建筑进行大幅度改造和重建，因此实际得到执行的改造方案，是拆除2门4英寸火炮，将4英寸高射炮往前挪，并在原先安装4英寸高射炮的位置，安装1门6英寸火炮。
对于C级，起初他们是打算按照蒂里特准将的建议，将第4门6英寸火炮安装在原先的4英寸高射炮的位置上的。但后来，基于康斯坦斯号轻巡洋舰的建议，他们决定将6英寸火炮安装在更靠前的位置上，这样就不用拆除那门4英寸高射炮了。
再后来，为了便于吊运小艇，C级的那门4英寸高射炮，最后还是被拆除了。作为替代，在舰桥后方的位置，增设了2门3英寸高射炮。
林仙级和C级的武备变迁示意图
左侧是林仙，从上往下，分别是原始状态（2门6英寸火炮+6门4英寸火炮+2座联装水上鱼雷发射管）、1916-17年改造后的状态（加装了2座联装水上鱼雷发射管、用1门4英寸高射炮替换1门3磅高射炮）、1918年改造后的状态（用1门6英寸火炮替换2门4英寸火炮）、以及未得到执行的1918年改造计划（用2门6英寸火炮替换6门4英寸火炮）。
右侧是卡洛琳级、卡利俄佩级、坎布里安级，从上往下，分别是原始状态（卡洛琳级是2门6英寸火炮+8门4英寸火炮+2座联装水上鱼雷发射管；卡利俄佩级和坎布里安级是2门6英寸火炮+8门4英寸火炮+2具水下鱼雷发射管）、1916-17年改造后的状态（用1门6英寸火炮替换2门4英寸火炮、用2座联装水上鱼雷发射管替换2门4英寸火炮、用1门4英寸高射炮替换1门3磅高射炮）、1918年改造后的状态（用1门6英寸火炮替换4门4英寸火炮）、以及1918年再度改造后的状态（用2门3英寸高射炮替换1门4英寸高射炮）。
下方是半人马级，配备有5门6英寸火炮+2门3英寸高射炮+2具水下鱼雷发射管。
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舰队巡洋舰：D级
D级轻巡洋舰，是在C级的基础上扩大而来的。根据Norman Friedman（British Cruisers: Two World Wars and After, P.54）、D. K. Brown（The Grand Fleet: Warship Design and Development 1906-1922, P.102-103）以及David Murfin（Lost in the Fog of War: Royal Navy Cruiser Designs for Trade Protection 1905-1920, P.18-19）的说法：
In about March 1916 DNC was asked to develop a new light cruiser for the programme planned for that May. The starting point seems to have been reports of new German light cruisers armed with ten or eleven 5.9in guns. DNC pointed out that the Germans were still following orthodox cruiser design practice, with guns on each broadside, so that the battery reported would give them a broadside of no more than six guns...The ‘D’ class were further enlargement of the ‘C’ class design...They were lengthened by about 20ft and given 2ft more beam to accommodate a sixth 6in gun between bridge and funnel. The 670 tons extra displacement allowed them to carry twelve torpedo tubes in four triple mounts. In September 1916 the first three cruisers of the ‘D’ class (Danae, Dauntless and Dragon) were ordered.
1916年3月时，造舰局长接到了为接下来的造舰计划设计一种新巡洋舰的任务。之所以会有此需求，源于英国海军收到情报，称德国海军的新式轻巡洋舰，配备有10或11门15cm火炮。造舰局长指出，德国海军还在采用传统的巡洋舰布局，即将火炮布置在左右两舷，因此其单弦火力不会超过6门。D级相当于是放大版的C级，其舰体长度和宽度都有所加大，吨位增加了670吨（达到4,850吨），增设了1门6英寸火炮，并换用了三联装水上鱼雷发射管，从而将发射管的数量增加到了12具。1916年9月时，英国海军订购了3艘D级轻巡洋舰。
The ‘D’ class were nearly as big as the pre-war ‘Towns’ and therefore potentially useful on the trade routes. DNC was then asked for a modified variant with 7,000nm range with minimal extra tonnage and loss of speed...Drawings were ready for DNC by 18 November...Two schemes were proposed. The first simply lengthened the standard ’D’ by 15ft to accommodate oil tanks inserted before the shell rooms below the midships 6in gun. The second aimed to reduce the silhouette seen from an angle to abeam by bringing the third gun before the bridge, though the ship was longer still...Instead, three more ordinary ‘D’s were ordered in July 1917 and six more in March 1918; four were cancelled when the war ended.
由于D级的吨位几乎与战前的城级相当，因此具备了执行通商保护任务的潜力。于是，造舰局长接到任务，对其设计进行改良，要求在不降低航速、吨位上涨幅度尽可能小的前提下，将其续航能力提升至7,000海里。1916年11月18日时，相关人员将设计图交到了造舰局长手中。他们提出了两个方案，第一个方案，是将D级的舰体延长15英尺，从而在舯部6英寸火炮的弹药库前方增加一个油舱。第二个方案，将原先位于舰桥后方的6英寸火炮挪到了舰桥前方，目的是降低斜向角度上的投影面积，但这么做还是导致了舰体变得更长。最终，英国海军没有选择这些方案，而是在1917年6月和1918年3月时，分别订购了3艘和6艘常规的D级。不过在战争结束之后，他们又取消了其中4艘的订单（即总共建造了8艘）。
加长版D级的设计方案
与常规的D级相比，加长版的区别是舯部6英寸火炮下方的油舱（图片中标注为OF的区域）。两个加长版的区别，是3号6英寸火炮的布置位置不同，下图中给出的是第二个加长版方案，其3号6英寸火炮位于舰桥前方，而不是像常规的D级或第一个加长版方案那样位于舰桥后方。
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加长版D级，是一种在舰队巡洋舰的基础上发展出通商保护巡洋舰的尝试。这种设计思路，可以说是回归了城级的兼顾舰队任务与通商保护任务的初心。
通商保护巡洋舰：大西洋型
所谓的大西洋巡洋舰，是一类计划用来替代老旧的通商保护巡洋舰的军舰设计。根据Norman Friedman（British Cruisers: Two World Wars and After, P.35）和David Murfin（Lost in the Fog of War: Royal Navy Cruiser Designs for Trade Protection 1905-1920, P.3-4 & P.7-8 & P.10 & P.12）的说法：
The protected cruisers of the Diadem class and the smaller ‘County’ class armoured cruisers built around the turn of the century...were a substantial part of RN resources for trade protection, but with heavy reciprocating machinery and old fashioned boilers they could not catch modern cruisers. The smaller 6in-gun protected cruisers of the Eclipse and Highflyer classes also continued to serve, although slow and obsolescent...The most modern 6,000-ton second class protected cruisers carried eleven 6in QF guns, the older (and larger) ones sixteen, with fourteen in the armoured cruisers of the 10,000-ton ‘County’ class. Later cruisers of the type (Devonshire class) had some of the 6in guns replaced by the heavier 7.5in.
建造于19世纪末的王冠级防护巡洋舰、以及建造于20世纪初的郡级（蒙莫斯级和德文郡级）装甲巡洋舰，都是用来执行通商保护任务的。王冠级的吨位超过了1万吨，配备有16门6英寸火炮；郡级的吨位在1万吨左右，其中蒙莫斯级配备有14门6英寸火炮，而德文郡级则配备有4门7.5英寸火炮和6门6英寸火炮。但这些军舰上的老式锅炉和往复式蒸汽机，已经无法追上新锐的巡洋舰了。日食级和高飞级防护巡洋舰，同样也是执行此类任务的，她们的吨位在6,000吨左右，配备有11门6英寸火炮，但其动力系统同样也已经落伍了。
In 1912 the new DNC Sir Eustace Tennyson d’Eyncourt drew the Board’s attention to the need to replace the large armoured cruisers then employed on foreign stations...Five notebook double pages illustrate designs for ‘Armoured cruisers for Atlantic Waters’. The three entries dated October 1912 are among the earliest in d’Eyncourt’s Notebook...Design A, smaller and cheaper, was more like a stronger ‘Town’ and a natural replacement for the Eclipse and Highflyer classes. Modern machinery allowed B1 or B2, though 2,000 tons lighter, to carry a very similar armament to Devonshire at higher speed and with similar protection...Designs B3 and B4 were dated July and August 1913. They differed markedly from the 1912 ships and from one other...B3 had a heavy armament: eight 7.5in guns in single turrets (three down each side). The 1912 designs and B3 were all oil-fired, but B4 had all-oil and mixed coal/oil alternatives...‘mixed’ B4’s legend displacement was 500 tons higher than B4 ‘oil’...The ‘Atlantic’ designs were expensive, with B1 and B2 costing twice as much as the £350,000 ‘Towns’...In terms of their size and chronology these designs form ‘a little known bridge’ between the ‘Towns’ and the Hawkins class, but they were more heavily armoured. The 7.5in gun was presumably introduced as a response to the rumoured bigger gun on German ships. This was hand-loaded by two men carrying the 200lb shell in a grab between them and the sustained rate of fire was probably about 3 rounds a minute.
1912年时，新上任的造舰局长戴恩科特，向海军部委员会提出，需要建造新的军舰来替换目前驻派在各个海外司令部的装甲巡洋舰。在戴恩克特的笔记本中，记录有大西洋巡洋舰各种不同设计。其中，有三个方案，是在1912年10月时拟定的。方案A的吨位较小、造价较低，类似于城级的加强版，显然是日食级和高飞级的替代舰。而方案B1和B2的吨位则比较大，达到了8,000吨级别，且具备与德文郡级类似的火力和防护水准，又由于其动力系统更先进，因此在比后者轻2,000吨的情况下，航速还比后者更快。方案B3和B4，则分别是在1913年7月和8月时拟定的，这两个方案与1912年的方案有较大差异，且互相之间也存在明显区别。B3的火力很强大，配备了8门7.5英寸火炮（8个单装炮塔，左右两舷各3个，其余2个分别位于舰艏和舰艉）。B4方案则有全燃油和油煤混烧两种版本，其中全燃油版本，要比油煤混烧两种版本轻500吨。相比之下，1912年的三个方案和1913年的B3方案，则都是全燃油动力的。与造价35万英镑的城级相比，大西洋巡洋舰的造价要昂贵不少，其中方案B1和B2的造价甚至达到了城级的两倍。从尺寸和先后顺序上来看，这些大西洋巡洋舰，是城级和霍金斯级之间的不为人知的过渡衔接，不过她们的装甲防护水准，要比后两者更厚重。大西洋巡洋舰之所以会配备7.5英寸火炮，原因可能是受到了德国巡洋舰计划配备较大口径的火炮的传闻的影响。7.5英寸火炮的弹重达到了200磅，需要两个人配合使用夹具才能完成人工装填，因此其持续射速大约只有3发/分。
At least one of the ‘Atlantic’ designs could well have been built in some numbers had not the war intervened. The mixed-fuel version of B4 was the clear favourite to replace older cruisers. However, a decision on their adoption was deferred for 12 months; by then Britain was at war, forced to rely on existing cruisers to protect trade.
如果不是因为战争爆发的话，大西洋巡洋舰很可能会被建造出来。其中，油煤混烧版本的B4是最受青睐的，很适合用来取代那些老旧的巡洋舰。不过，由于海军部委员会决定推迟12个月再考虑这种军舰，因此当战争爆发后，英国海军就只能凭借现有的巡洋舰来保护海上贸易了。
大西洋巡洋舰的各个设计方案
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大西洋巡洋舰的各个设计方案的指标参数
方案AB1B2B3B4（燃油版）B4（油煤混烧版）
排水量6,150吨8,150吨8,000吨7,400吨6,500吨7,000吨
造价55万英镑75万英镑74万英镑70万英镑54.8万英镑58.8万英镑
火炮配置7.5英寸x2
6英寸x87.5英寸x4
6英寸x87.5英寸x4
6英寸x87.5英寸x87.5英寸x2
6英寸x67.5英寸x2
6英寸x6
主装甲带厚度4英寸6英寸6英寸4英寸4英寸4英寸
最大出力40,000轴马力40,000轴马力40,000轴马力30,000轴马力30,000轴马力28,000轴马力
最大航速28节28节28节26节27.5节26.5节
通商保护巡洋舰：霍金斯级
霍金斯级，通常被认为是条约重巡洋舰的先驱。从职能上来说，她们是大西洋巡洋舰的继承者。根据Norman Friedman（British Cruisers: Two World Wars and After, P.65-70 & P.82）和D. K. Brown（The Grand Fleet: Warship Design and Development 1906-1922, P.66-67）的说法：
DNC repeated his proposal for large overseas design in a memo dated 12 October 1914 to the Board. In a Minute for the Board on the new construction programme for 1915/16, the First Lord (Balfour) repeated DNC’s argument: ‘The rapid deterioration of our older cruisers will necessitate before very long a replacement of cruisers suitable for foreign service; and the Board consider that preparation should be made for six such vessels later in the year.’
1914年10月12日时，造舰局长撰写了一份备忘录，其目的是建议海军部委员会建造通商保护巡洋舰。当海军部委员会就1915/16财年的造舰计划进行讨论时，海军大臣亚瑟·贝尔福重提了造舰局长的观点：老式巡洋舰的状况不佳，很快就需要予以替换，因此需要建造适合在海外地区行动的巡洋舰。海军部委员会认为，应该在当年的造舰计划中，加入6艘此类军舰。
In 1915 a new class of cruiser was designed to hunt German cruisers on the trade routes - the Raleigh class. After Raleigh was wrecked in 1922, the class was known by a variety of names, most often Hawkins. They were to be fast, carry a heavy armament and would therefore be big ships. Alternative designs were prepared with eight, twelve and fourteen 6in guns and also one with two 9.2in and eight 6in. However, the final armament was seven 7.5in together with ten 12pdrs (four on AA mountings), on a displacement of 9750 tons legend...The most unusual feature of the design was the combination of inward-sloping sides and bulge similar to that chosen a few months earlier for the ‘large light cruiser’ (or light battlecruiser) HMS Furious (a similar form was chosen for HMS Hood)...They retained the mixed firing of the ‘Atlantics’...In November 1917 the Board ordered the three least advanced (Raleigh, Effingham and Frobisher) converted to burn only oil fuel...They were costly ships at £750,000, excluding guns and mountings and hence only five ships could be ordered and one, Cavendish, was converted into the carrier Vindictive during construction.
在此情况下，英国海军在1915年时，设计了一种新的巡洋舰，来对抗执行通商破坏任务的德国巡洋舰。这级军舰最初被称为罗利级，但由于罗利号在1922年时搁浅了，因此后来通常就被称为霍金斯级了。这些军舰的吨位达到了9,750吨，具备很强的武备和很高的航速。在设计阶段时，有过8门6英寸、12门6英寸、14门6英寸、9门9.2英寸及8门6英寸等各种火炮配置，不过最后选定的是7门7.5英寸及10门12磅（其中有4门是高射炮）。霍金斯的船壳是向内倾斜的，并且还带有突出部。这种舰体结构，是基于暴怒号大型轻巡洋舰/轻型战列巡洋舰发展而来的，同时也与胡德号的设计有些类似。霍金斯级采用了油煤混烧动力，这一点与大西洋巡洋舰类似，不过在1917年时，建造进度最慢的3艘，动力系统被改造成了全燃油动力。这些军舰的造价颇为昂贵，在不计入火炮和炮座的情况下，就达到了75万英镑，因此只建造了5艘，其中卡文迪什号在建造过程中被改造成了航空母舰，舰名也改成了惩罚号。
The captain of HMS Hawkins considered the 7.5in gun unsuitable for light cruisers due to its low rate of fire (two-thirds that of a 6in under favourable conditions, offering more weight of metal but worse control due to more time between shots)...DNO saw proof that any new heavily-armed cruisers should have power-worked shell and cordite hoists directly under the guns. DGD defended the 7.5in gun as far more formidable than a 6in, given its much heavier shell and greater stopping power. It offered longer range, and it could be controlled at much longer range because the splashes from its shells were much more visible...PWQ Committee reported...The Hawkins class outgunned enemy light cruisers, but were expensive, and could easily be outgunned in turn, e.g. by ships with 9.2in guns. It might be more efficient to reinforce cruiser squadrons abroad with the older battlecruisers than to buy more large cruisers.
霍金斯号的舰长认为，7.5英寸火炮不适合轻巡洋舰，原因是其射速较低——在条件良好的情况下，7.5英寸火炮的射速大约为6英寸火炮的2/3，尽管前者的投射量比后者更大，但由于射击间隔更久，因此火控难度更大。军械局长据此认为，以后再建造具备较大口径火炮的巡洋舰时，应该直接在火炮下方配备由机械驱动的弹药提升井（即采用炮塔结构）。海军参谋总局的炮术分局长则认为，7.5英寸火炮的弹重更大、停止作用也更强，因此其威力要比6英寸火炮大得多。并且，由于7.5英寸火炮的射程更远、溅起的水花更大，因此更适合远距离火控。战后问题委员会（一个在大战结束后成立，用于研究战时经验并为后续军舰设计提供参考建议的委员会）则表示，尽管霍金斯级的火炮口径比其他轻巡洋舰更大，但其造价也更为昂贵，并且也可能会被火炮口径更大（例如9.2英寸）的敌舰所压制。相比于建造这种大吨位的巡洋舰，将老式战列巡洋舰派去加强巡洋舰中队，可能是更高效的做法。
霍金斯级的三视图
霍金斯级巡洋舰，配备有7门7.5英寸火炮、6具21英寸鱼雷发射管（2具水下+4具水上），主装甲带厚度3英寸（倾斜布置），最大航速30-31节。
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通商保护巡洋舰：E级
E级，是英国海军在大战末期建造的一种具备高航速的通商保护巡洋舰。根据D. K. Brown（The Grand Fleet: Warship Design and Development 1906-1922, P.103）和K. D. McBride（Es and Super-Es, P.2 & P.9）的说法：
The Emerald, Enterprise and Euphrates were designed for very high speed to match exaggerated reports of the speed of the German minelayers Brummer and Bremse...First thoughts were of a 4,500 ton 60,000 s.h.p. one for one ship to fight the Brummer on equal terms, then of a bigger, better-armed 80.000 s.h.p. design. The decision was for the latter, the 'D' armament of 6 x 6 in was considered adeguate, the speed requirement was 33 knots lightly loaded or 32 knots at deep load. Even this required a lot more power than the 'D's, and more hull to accommodate it...the machinery occupying much centreline space and needing a sided pair of 6in amidships to maintain a six-gun broadside... The much bigger machinery made it impossible to get six 6 in onto the center line, so a seventh had to be added, the third and fourth being placed on each side. As with the 'D's, triple torpedo tubes were fitted. All this meant a much bigger ship, bringing 'Legend' displacement up to 7,550 tons against 4,850 for the 'D's...At the end of the war one was cancelled and the others completing in leisurely fashion in 1926.
由于英国海军对德国海军的布鲁默级布雷巡洋舰的最大航速，做出了错误的估计（英国情报认为她们的最大航速高达36节），因此还特地设计了E级轻巡洋舰，来对抗这些德国军舰。起初，英国人打算在4,500吨级的舰体上配备60,000轴马力的动力，后来又考虑在更大的舰体上配备80,000轴马力的动力。在这两种方案中，英国人选择了后者。这种军舰的最大航速要求是，轻载状态33节/满载状态32节，火炮要求则与D级相同。不过，由于该设计的动力系统非常庞大，因此无法在中线上布置6门火炮，于是不得不为其配备7门6英寸火炮，其中有2门分别安装在舰体舯部两侧。鱼雷配置与D级相同，都采用了三联装的水上发射管。上述所说的这些配置，都意味着更大的吨位，因此其排水量达到了7,550吨，相比之下D级则只有4,850吨。英国海军订购了3艘E级轻巡洋舰，战争结束后取消了1艘，另外2艘的建造节奏也被大幅放缓，最终完工时已是1926年。
In the summer of 1918 a conference on future cruiser policy was held in the Grand Fleet, and the Director of Naval Construction was represented there. British spy had reported that the Germans were planning light cruisers with two 8.2 in (210 mm) guns each. The DNC representative took along two 'Super Emerald' designs, 'A' with four 7.5 in guns and 'B' with five. Protection; minor armament and general layout were similar to the 'E's. 'A' was virtually the Emerald with revised armament, while 'B' ship sacrificed ½ knot to carry a fifth 7.5 in and approached the Hawkins in size...The conference felt strongly that numbers of light cruisers were all-important, while the 'D's were as big as were needed; any extra resources available should therefore be devoted to speed. Development of 'A' & 'B' was therefore dropped. One written comment was that "So-called 'Ocean Cruisers' of the Raleigh (i.e. Hawkins) type might be required after the war for foreign stations, but not required now".
1918年夏天时，大舰队内开了一个会议，不过造舰局也受邀参加了，他们讨论的内容是未来的巡洋舰建造策略。有英国间谍报告称，德国海军计划建造的轻巡洋舰，将会配备2门21cm火炮。与会的造舰局人员，拿出了两个“超级E级”方案，其中方案A配备有4门7.5英寸火炮，而方案B则配备有5门7.5英寸火炮。除了主炮之外，其他方面则与E级差不多。方案A本质上就是更改了主炮的E级（该方案的排水量是7,700吨），而方案B则是为了增加1门7.5英寸火炮，而牺牲了0.5节航速，并且在吨位上更接近霍金斯级（该方案的排水量是8,850吨）。然而，与会人员普遍认为，轻巡洋舰的数量才是最重要的，而D级的吨位已经足够大了。如果要进一步加强，那么应该强化的是航速。在此情况下，这两个方案就被放弃了。有与会人士写道：“目前来说，我们并不需要通商保护巡洋舰，不过当战争结束后，我们可能需要在海外地区部署霍金斯级那样的军舰”。
超级E级的两个设计方案
请注意，超级E级的所有主炮都是位于中线上的，因此尽管火炮数量仅为4门或5门，但全都能指向左右两舷开火。相比之下，尽管霍金斯级和E级配备有7门主炮，但由于其中有2门位于舰体舯部两侧，因此单舷火力只有6门。
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超级E级，可以认为是E级与霍金斯级的融合体，同时也是一战时期的英国通商保护巡洋舰的终极发展形态。
殖民地巡洋舰
除了舰队巡洋舰和通商保护巡洋舰之外，当时英国海军还考虑过一种殖民地巡洋舰。根据Norman Friedman（British Cruisers: Two World Wars and After, P.35）和David Murfin（Lost in the Fog of War: Royal Navy Cruiser Designs for Trade Protection 1905-1920, P.19 & P.21）的说法：
Peacetime ceremonial, patrol and policing functions on foreign and colonial stations still engaged many older small vessels, some carrying sail, despite Fisher’s 1904-05 cull. In 1912 a Committee on the ‘Design of Cruisers for Foreign and Colonial Stations’ reviewed ‘peace cruiser’ functions, seeking a suitable design (if expedient, for both peace and war) to replace ships on colonial stations over the next eight years, at minimal cost...Characteristics were to be 2,000-2,500 tons, six 4in guns, 5,000shp for 20 knots on trials, sea speed 17-18 knots, cost ca £100,000...Initial design was a compact 1,750 tons. A review insisted on two 6in guns, landing guns and other additions, raising displacement by 250 tons...Churchill’s minute dated 5 February expressed a First Lord’s view: new British cruisers must be designed solely to fight modern warships. Two superior British light cruisers (more if of lesser power) must be built for each German light cruiser. Military considerations alone governed their design, making them unnecessarily large and costly for Colonial duties...The Naval Staff rejected the Committee design as expensive for its peacetime duties, yet too slow and weak to fight effectively in wartime, and too costly to be exposed to loss...It died because British finances were badly strained simply to match German cruiser construction as desired.
尽管在1904-05财年时，费舍尔已经裁撤了许多老旧军舰，但为了执行和平时期的礼节性任务、以及海外及殖民地区域的巡逻和治安任务，当时英国海军还是保留了不少小吨位的老式军舰，其中有些甚至还带有风帆。1912年时，他们成立了一个海外及殖民地巡洋舰设计委员会，目的是以拿出一种合适的巡洋舰设计，从而在接下来的8年时间里，以最小的成本，去替换那些在殖民地服役的老旧军舰。他们拿出的设计指标是，排水量2,000-2,5000吨，6门4英寸火炮，5,000轴马力，试航航速20节/实际航速17-18节，造价约10万英镑。造舰局最初拿出的设计方案颇为紧凑，排水量只有1,750吨。在经过评议之后，他们又对该方案进行了改良，为其配备了2门6英寸火炮，此外还有一些其他的调整，这导致其吨位上涨了250吨（达到了2,000吨）。会议纪要显示，1913年2月5日时，丘吉尔表示，新的英国巡洋舰，必须且只能设计来对抗敌方的新式军舰。德国海军每建造1艘轻巡洋舰，英国海军就应该建造2艘性能更佳的轻巡洋舰，如果英舰的性能不如德舰，那么数量还应更高。这些军舰的设计，只应考虑军事需求，因此其吨位和造价都会比较高，不适合用于殖民地任务。海军总参谋局则推翻了设计委员会提出的指标，认为从和平时期的任务需求出发，这些军舰的造价太贵了；但在战争时期，这些军舰的航速和战斗力又太低了，且如果发生损失，代价也比较高昂。最终，出于财政因素，英国海军选择不建造这类巡洋舰。
殖民地巡洋舰的两个设计方案
第一个方案配备有6门4英寸火炮，排水量为1,750吨；第二个方案配备有2门6英寸火炮和4门4英寸火炮，排水量为2,000吨；两个方案的最大航速均为20节。
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作为次级主力舰的的巡洋舰
作为巡洋舰设计的收尾，我们再额外介绍一种那个时期的英国海军曾经考虑过，但未曾实际建造的军舰类型——配备9.2英寸火炮的装甲巡洋舰——本质上来说，这类军舰就是介于战列巡洋舰与轻巡洋舰之间的次级主力舰。
在1907年时，英国海军就准备过此类军舰的设计方案。后来，在1913年时，他们又再次拿出了两个设计方案。但这些方案，最终都停留在纸面上了。根据D. K. Brown（The Grand Fleet: Warship Design and Development 1906-1922, P.60-61）和David Murfin（Lost in the Fog of War: Royal Navy Cruiser Designs for Trade Protection 1905-1920, P.4 & P.12-14）的说法：
There seems to have been no support within the Admiralty for smaller battleships but there are indications that there was strong support for smaller and cheaper armoured cruisers...In June 1907 Jellicoe (DNO) urged that the armoured cruisers for the 1908-09 programme should be armed with 9.2in rather than 12in guns to save money. His views were endorsed by the full Board...Sir Phillip Watts produced two designs: ‘E’ with four twin 9.2in and wing turrets as Invincible; the other with three twin 9.2in, its only midships turret on the centreline. No drawings are available...These schemes were not pursued...German plans for big gun (11in) battlecruisers led to the cancellation of these 9.2in ships and hence to the Indefatigable.
在那个时代，海军部内似乎并没有人支持建造小吨位的战列舰，但显然是有人支持建造吨位较小、造价较低的装甲巡洋舰的。在1907年6月时，当时担任军械局长的杰里科，建议将1908-09财年的装甲巡洋舰的火炮口径，从12英寸降低至9.2英寸，从而节省经费。他的建议，得到了海军部委员会的全体成员的支持。造舰局长菲利普·瓦茨，拿出了两个设计方案，一个是方案E，配备有4座9.2英寸双联炮塔，布局与无敌级相同；另一个方案则只有3座9.2英寸双联炮塔，但这些炮塔都位于中轴线上；不过这两个方案都没有图纸存世。但是，这些配备9.2英寸火炮的设计方案，最终被取消了。为了应对德国海军计划建造的装备28cm火炮的战列巡洋舰，英国海军最终建造的，是不倦级战列巡洋舰。
There was another attempt at a 9.2in cruiser in October 1913. D’Eyncourt’s notebook describes two variants, E2 and E3...In a ship to ship duel the odds would clearly favour Invincible and the cost saving of the 1913 designs is not enough to have much effect on the numbers which could be built...Why such designs were being considered in 1913 is unclear...The 9.2in ship were sufficiently fast and powerful to sink all cruisers and any fast German liners armed as corsairs. Alternatively, the rationale for the designs may have been simply to compare the costs of armoured cruisers with the smaller ‘Atlantic’ cruisers. The notebook gives the fates of the designs: E2 and E3 were marked ‘Dropped’, implying abandoned prior to submission to the Admiralty Board.
至1913年10月时，他们又再度想到了配备9.2英寸火炮的装甲巡洋舰。造舰局长戴恩科特的笔记本中，描述了E2和E3这两个设计方案。不过，以单舰对决而论，这两个方案显然都不是无敌级战列巡洋舰的对手，并且其造价也并不比无敌级低多少，因此不可能形成数量优势。所以英国海军为什么会准备这些设计方案呢？其原因，我们并不清楚。这类军舰拥有很高的航速，9.2英寸火炮也具备较强的威力，因此有可能是用来对抗德国海军的破交巡洋舰，以及用高速邮轮改装的辅助巡洋舰的。另一种可能性是，他们只是想将这些装甲巡洋舰的造价，与那些吨位较小的大西洋巡洋舰进行对比。根据戴恩科特的笔记本中的记录，这两个方案在提交给海军部委员会讨论之前，就已经被放弃了。
1913年的装甲巡洋舰设计（E2方案）
E2与E3的主要区别，是后者的装甲防护范围要比前者更大一些，但吨位也要更大一些。
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E系列装甲巡洋舰与同时代的战列巡洋舰的指标参数对比
从下表中可以看到，E的造价约为无敌级的3/4，而E2和E3的造价约为虎号的2/3，这样的价格差距不足以形成明显的数量优势，完全无法弥补两类军舰在火炮口径上的巨大差异。由此来看，这类设计被放弃，是再自然不过的事了。
另一方面，由于大西洋巡洋舰的造价仅为55-75万英镑，只相当于虎号的1/3到1/4，远低于E2和E3，因此尽管大西洋巡洋舰的战斗力更弱，但却足以形成明显的数量优势，从而覆盖更大范围的海域，进而更好的保护英国的海上交通。
方案无敌级EE2E3虎号
设计年份1905年1907年1913年1913年1911年
排水量17,300吨15,750吨15,500吨17,850吨28,800吨
造价175万英镑128万英镑135万英镑150万英镑222万英镑
火炮配置12英寸x8
4英寸x169.2英寸x8
4英寸x169.2英寸x8
6英寸x89.2英寸x8
6英寸x813.5英寸x8
6英寸x12
主装甲带厚度6英寸6英寸6英寸6英寸9英寸
最大出力41,000轴马力40,000轴马力55,000轴马力60,000轴马力85,000轴马力
最大航速25节25节28节28节28节
结论：与战列舰不同的是，巡洋舰的职能更为多样化，因此适应不同职能的巡洋舰，往往需要采用不同的设计。德国海军的小型巡洋舰，是最早的现代意义上的轻巡洋舰。而英国海军的最早的现代意义上的轻巡洋舰，则是城级。这两型军舰都属于既能伴随舰队，也能执行通商保护或通商破坏任务的双重职能巡洋舰，且在其发展过程中，两者都经历了火炮口径和防护设计上的变迁——受其影响，此后建造的轻巡洋舰，通常都配备有6英寸火炮和舷侧装甲带。然而，在大战前夕及大战时期，英国海军不再建造双重职能的巡洋舰，而是选择分别建造专职的舰队巡洋舰和专职的通商保护巡洋舰。
一战时期的英国舰队巡洋舰，以林仙级和C级为典型代表。在其发展过程中，她们的火炮和鱼雷配置上经历了多次调整。起初，其主要假想敌是敌方的驱逐舰，因此更强调4英寸火炮；然而战时经验却表明，6英寸火炮比4英寸火炮更适合实战需求。在此情况下，这些军舰上的4英寸火炮被逐步拆除，并换上了6英寸火炮。至于她们的鱼雷发射管配置，第一次调整是将水上发射管改为水下发射管，好处是可以不妨碍火炮射界；第二次调整则又改回了水上发射管，并且还增加了发射管的数量，以增强鱼雷火力。这种调整，反映出了杰里科对舰队巡洋舰的雷击职能的重视。
一战时期的英国通商保护巡洋舰，则是一个较少受到关注的话题。无论是停留在设计阶段的大西洋巡洋舰、还是实际得以建造的霍金斯级，都与林仙级和C级有着非常明显的区别。前两者的吨位要大得多，并且还配备了7.5英寸火炮。不过，霍金斯级的火炮口径选择，在英国海军内部引起了争议。大战末期建造的E级，则是特地强化最大航速的设计，但在火炮口径上回归了6英寸；然而，在E级的基础上发展出来的超级E级，则再度采用了7.5英寸火炮。另一方面，为了覆盖更大范围的海域，通商保护巡洋舰的吨位和造价，有必要控制在合理的范围之内——英国海军在1907和1913年的若干个装备9.2英寸火炮的装甲巡洋舰设计方案，显然就是这方面的经典反面例子——无法与主力舰对抗，但造价又高昂到无法大批量建造的次级主力舰，实在是没有多少价值。
至于殖民地巡洋舰，尽管英国海军曾在维多利亚时代大量装备，但却在费舍尔的改革过程中被大量裁撤。如同费舍尔所说，小型的武装商船也能执行此类军舰负担的任务，因此是否有必要专门花钱建造此类军舰，实在是值得多加斟酌的。
舰队巡洋舰和通商保护巡洋舰的差异，反映出了职能定位的不同，会对巡洋舰的设计造成多么大的影响。但城级、加长版D级、以及德国小型巡洋舰的存在，又证明了这两者之间并不存在不可跨越的鸿沟。而殖民地巡洋舰与前两类巡洋舰的差异，则反映出了性能与价格之间的矛盾。至于到底需要建造哪种类型的巡洋舰，则取决于这个国家当时所面临的战略环境——如果面对的是一战时的德国，那么显然应以舰队巡洋舰为主；如果面对的是世纪之交时的法俄两国，则应多建造通商保护巡洋舰。 本帖最后由 seven_nana 于 2023-3-18 09:10 编辑
三、驱逐舰的吨位之争
与战列舰、战列巡洋舰、轻巡洋舰的情况相比，驱逐舰的情况则要简单不少——这种军舰的变化趋势，主要围绕着吨位这个话题展开。
英国海军的驱逐舰设计
在第三章 - 费舍尔与无畏舰革命中，我们介绍过，在就任第一海务大臣后，费舍尔规划了三种驱逐舰，其中部族级和敏捷号的试航航速，分别高达33节和35节。然而，这两种军舰的设计都是颇为失败的。
在第四章 - 英德造舰竞赛中，我们则介绍过，在经过了1905-1908年间的蹉跎之后，自1909年起，英国海军的驱逐舰建造工作，逐步走向了正轨。其中，建造时间较早的小猎犬级、橡子级、阿刻戎级，最大航速均为27节；而建造时间较晚的阿卡斯塔级，最大航速则为29节。与这些军舰相比，大战前夕及大战过程中建造的英国驱逐舰，则普遍具备更高的航速。
中等吨位的驱逐舰设计：M级、R级、改R级
M级，是英国海军在大战爆发前建造的最为新锐的驱逐舰，以高航速而著称。R级和改R级，则是M级的后续发展形态。根据Norman Friedman（British Destroyers: From Earliest Days to the Second World War, P.132）和D. K. Brown（The Grand Fleet: Warship Design and Development 1906-1922, P.73）的说法：
In spring 1912, German destroyers were reportedly making much higher speeds. The new British destroyers might be obsolete before they were laid down. Although the Controller pointed out that in a seaway the British ships would be faster, on 19 June the First Lord, Winston Churchill, wrote the Controller and the First Sea Lord that ‘I cannot say how serious and urgent this question seems to be. We should get on without delay with the designs...Nothing less than thirty-six knots will be satisfactory.’
1912年春天时，英国海军收到情报，称德国海军的驱逐舰速度，比之前所了解的要快很多。在此情况下，英国海军正计划建造的驱逐舰，可能会在尚未开工之时就已经落伍。尽管第三海务大臣表示，在大海上实际航行时，英国驱逐舰的速度会比德国驱逐舰更快，但在6月19日时，海军大臣（丘吉尔）还是给第一海务大臣和第三海务大臣写信表示：“这个问题非常紧急也非常严重，我们应该立即着手准备新设计，并且这种军舰应至少具备36节的航速”。
The Admiralty ‘M ‘class destroyers had their speed greatly increased to 34kts with the Specials even faster at 35kts...This increase in speed was of course expensive, the Admiralty Ms costing about £110,000 while the Specials cost some £127,000.
海军部版的M级驱逐舰，最大航速为34节；造船厂特别版的M级驱逐舰，最大航速则为35节。不过，航速提升也意味着造价的提升，海军部版M级的价格约为11万英镑，而造船厂特别版M级的造价则达到12.7万英镑。
When war broke out in August 1914, the Admiralty expected heavy destroyer losses, so it proposed a war programme. The iron law of mobilisation is to build what is already being built, so the war programme called for repeat M class destroyers.
当战争爆发之后，海军部预期驱逐舰部队会遭受大量损失，因此提出了战时造舰计划。而战时造舰的不二法则，则是建造现有的军舰设计，因此这项造舰计划中包括了大量的M级驱逐舰。
By July 1915 the Admiralty had decided that all future destroyers should have two-shaft geared turbines. This led to the ‘R’ class which was similar to the ‘Ms’. Comparative trials of Romola with the ungeared Norman showed a 15 per cent fuel saving at 18kts and 28 per cent at 25kts.
至1915年6月时，海军部决定，以后建造的驱逐舰，都将采用双轴驱动，并配备带有减速齿轮的蒸汽轮机（此前是三轴驱动，不带减速齿轮的蒸汽轮机）。这种基于M级的设计，并换用了新式动力系统的驱逐舰，被称为R级。对比测试显示，带有减速齿轮的蒸汽轮机，在18节航速下能节省15%的燃油，在25节航速下则能节省28%的燃油。
On 30 June 1916, the Board decided that destroyers ordered from December 1915 onwards, would be completed to a modified design, their bridges moved aft by reversing the order of the boiler rooms. The redesigned ships were called the Modified R class.
1916年6月30日时，海军部委员会决定，1915年12月之后下订的R级驱逐舰，都将在设计上做出变更，锅炉舱的布置有所调整，舰桥的位置则将被后移。这种经过设计变更的军舰，被称为改R级。
M级的侧视与俯视图
M级驱逐舰，配备有3门4英寸火炮、4具21英寸鱼雷发射管（水上），最大航速34-35节。R级和改R级的武备与M级相同，但最大航速提高到了36节。
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较大吨位的驱逐舰设计：V级、W级
V级，是英国海军在大战时期建造的最为优秀的驱逐舰，是在驱逐领舰的基础上发展出来的；W级则是V级的后续发展形态。根据Norman Friedman（British Destroyers: From Earliest Days to the Second World War, P.162-163）和D. K. Brown（The Grand Fleet: Warship Design and Development 1906-1922, P.107-109）的说法：
DNC was asked to design a new leader with a speed of 34kts using the same machinery as the ‘R’ class. Length was saved by adopting superfiring guns forward and aft and only two funnels were fitted. Initially, five ships were ordered (Vampire, Valentine, Valhalla, Valorous and Valkyrie), described as divisional or half leaders. This design almost accidentally became one of the greatest warship designs of all time and was the model for two decades of future British and many foreign destroyers.
造舰局长接到任务，要基于R级的动力系统，设计一种最大航速为34节的的驱逐领舰。与先前的驱逐领舰相比，这种新设计采用了背负式火炮布局、并且烟囱数量也减少到了两根，因此其舰体长度有所减少。英国海军最初订购了5艘，并将其称作驱逐舰分队领舰。这种军舰，就是后来的V级，她们几乎可以说是有史以来最优秀的军舰设计之一，并且成为了接下来的20年间的英国驱逐舰、以及许多外国驱逐舰的范本。
In 1916 reports suggested that the Germans were building numerous large destroyers and twenty-five repeats were ordered in June as the ‘V’ class destroyers...The ship would cost about £200,000, compared to £188,000 for an R. Twenty-one ‘W’ class (plus two cancelled) followed in December 1916...In February 1917 contractors were told that W class destroyers would be armed with triple tubes, but the original Vs were not rearmed until after the First Word War.
在1916年时，英国海军收到情报称，德国海军建造了许多大吨位的驱逐舰。在此情况下，他们又订购了25艘V级驱逐舰。这种军舰的造价约为20万英镑，作为对比，R级的造价则约为18.8万英镑。在1916年12月时，他们追加订购了23艘W级驱逐舰（其中有2艘后来被取消了，因此实际只建造了21艘）。至1917年2月时，英国海军又通知造船厂，W级驱逐舰将会配备三联装水上鱼雷发射管。然而之前建造的V级驱逐舰，则要到大战结束后才会换装这种新式的鱼雷发射管。
V级的侧视与俯视图
V级驱逐舰，配备有4门4英寸火炮、4具21英寸鱼雷发射管（水上），最大航速为34节。W级与V级的主要区别是，后者拥有6具21英寸鱼雷发射管（水上）。
https://www.warships.com.cn/data/attachment/album/202301/11/224526mjqsqj6sqijqfijl.jpg
建造两类不同吨位的驱逐舰的原因，以及她们的最终发展形态：S级和改W级
如上所述，与更早些时候的英国驱逐舰相比，M级的最大区别是航速得到了大幅提高。此后，无论是中等吨位的R级和改R级，还是较大吨位的V级和W级，普遍都具备很高的航速（34-36节）。那么问题来了，M级、R级、改R级与V级、W级之间的区别又是什么呢？为什么会有中等吨位和较大吨位的两类驱逐舰呢？根据Norman Friedman（British Destroyers: From Earliest Days to the Second World War, P.）和D. K. Brown（The Grand Fleet: Warship Design and Development 1906-1922, P.73 & P.109）的说法：
The V class had been justified largely by reports of large German destroyers, but later Naval Intelligence reported no more than eleven such four-gun ships (presumably the B97 class ordered originally by Russia) were in commission.
英国海军之所以会建造V级驱逐舰，原因在于他们收到的情报显示，德国海军建造了大吨位的驱逐舰。但后来，情报表明，此类驱逐舰总共只有11艘（实际上是12艘，8艘B97级和4艘G101级）。
By early 1917, the German destroyer scare was over...it was realised that the Germans were only building small numbers of big destroyers and hence the British did not need all their ships to be as big as the ‘Vs’ and ‘Ws’...Ironically just as Germany was laying down super-destroyers (S 113 class) armed with 5.9in guns. In February 1917, the Controller pointed out that a Modified R offered thirty-six knots compared to the thirty-four knots expected from a V class destroyer. It could be built faster and at lower cost. Modifying the V class to give thirty-six knots would cost even more, both in money and in time - hence in numbers...This design was further developed into the ‘S’ class. The ‘S’ class had a more heavily raked stem, and considerable sheer to the forecastle which had a vestigial turtle deck...In August 1918, Commodore (F) considered the S class the most seaworthy British destroyers. In declining order, the others were the V, R, and M classes.
至1917年初时，所谓的大吨位德国驱逐舰的传闻已经翻篇了。当英国海军发现，德国海军只建造了少量的大吨位驱逐舰后，他们意识到，自己不需要将所有的驱逐舰，都建造成V级和W级那样的大吨位驱逐舰。但具有讽刺意味的是，恰好也是在这一时期，德国海军开工建造了配备有15cm火炮的S113级超级驱逐舰。1917年2月时，第三海务大臣指出，改R级的最大航速达到36节，而V级则只有34节。并且，改R级不仅速度更快，而且还便宜。如果要将V级的航速提高到36节，那么其造价还会进一步提高、工期也会进一步延长，于是军舰数量就会变得更少。于是接下来，他们又在改R级的基础上，发展出了S级。与改R级相比，S级的舰艏更为倾斜，艏楼的舷弧更为明显，并且其甲板结构还是略微向上拱起的。1918年8月时，英国海军的驱逐舰部队司令表示，在英国驱逐舰中，S级拥有最好的适航性，接下来分别是V级、R级、M级。
Initially, the 1919 destroyer programme (ie, the 1918-19 Programme) was to have consisted of more S class destroyers. However on 17 January 1918 the Board decided that instead these ships would be repeat W class; ‘the advantages of the W over the S class of destroyers’ more than outweighed the expected 2½-months delay in the programme due to changing destroyer type...A repeat ‘W’ class of sixteen boats was ordered in January 1918 and thirty-eight more in the spring but only nine of the first batch and seven of the second were completed...The repeat ‘Ws’ had a 4.7in BL (50lb shell) to counter the rumoured heavier armament in German ships.
1918-19财年的造舰计划，原本是打算继续建造S级的，但在1918年1月17日时，海军部委员会决定，他们要建造W级。尽管这么做，会导致造舰工作延缓2个半月，但他们认为这是值得的，因为W级的确要比S级强很多。于是，在1918年1月和4月时，英国海军分两批，分别订购了16艘和38艘改W级驱逐舰，不过这两批订单，最终分别仅有9艘和7艘建成。这些改W级，配备有4.7英寸火炮，弹重达到了50磅（此前的英国驱逐舰普遍搭载4英寸火炮，弹重为31磅），其目的是与传闻中具备强大火炮配置的德国驱逐舰（S113级）相抗衡。
英国海军技术史中对驱逐舰的火炮配置及其变更情况的描述
如上所述，在大战末期时，英国海军对驱逐舰的火炮进行了升级，从4英寸升级到了4.7英寸。此外，在战争时期，他们还对部分驱逐舰的火炮配置进行了变更。以下内容是英国海军官方技术史对这个话题的描述。
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大战爆发前建造的L级驱逐舰，配备有3门4英寸火炮，其炮弹重量为31磅，发射药采用药筒形式，最大射程为7,900码；而大战结束后建成的改W型驱逐舰，则配备有4门4.7英寸火炮，其炮弹重量为50磅，发射药采用药筒形式，最大射程为16,000码；换句话说，在大战期间，驱逐舰的火炮投射量和最大射程，都几乎翻了个倍。
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在1916年7月时，英国海军发现，德国驱逐舰的火炮射程，要比英国驱逐舰上的4英寸火炮的射程更远。在此情况下，英国海军对现有驱逐舰的武备，进行了实验性质的改装——他们在敏捷号（排水量超过2,000吨）和维京号（排水量约900吨）这两艘驱逐舰上，各安装了1门6英寸火炮，并在阿夫里迪号（排水量约900吨）驱逐舰上安装了2门4.7英寸火炮。他们发现，4.7英寸火炮的表现良好，但6英寸火炮的表现则不够理想——原因在于，驱逐舰的吨位较小，无法为6英寸火炮提供足够稳定的炮术平台。其结果是，维京号上的那门6英寸火炮被拆除了，而敏捷号则由于吨位足够大，因此仍然保留了那门6英寸火炮。
德国海军的驱逐舰设计
在第四章 - 英德造舰竞赛中，我们介绍过，总体来说，德国驱逐舰的排水量要比英国驱逐舰低一些，尤其是1911-13年间建造的V1级，吨位明显偏小，但由于其存在适航性不足的缺点，因此自1913年起，他们又开始建造吨位较大的V25级驱逐舰了。
在战争爆发后，德国海军还建造了不少驱逐舰，但除了S113级之外，其余基本都是在V25级的基础上发展而来的。根据M. J. Whitely的说法（German Destroyers of World War Two, P.10-11）：
The years immediately preceding the First World War...typical German ship had stabilized around a 700/900-tonne boat, carrying three 8.8cm guns and with the torpedo armament increased to six tubes. The 10.5cm gun, introduced in 1912, was not fitted as standard to other classes before the war...By the surrender the German destroyer had evolved into a 1,200-ton ship, carrying three 10.5cm guns and six 50cm torpedo tubes.
战争前夕时建造的德国驱逐舰，吨位大约在700-900吨之间，并搭载有3门8.8cm火炮和6具50cm鱼雷发射管。至于10.5cm火炮，尽管在1912年时便已经有少量驱逐舰搭载，但并未成为标准配置。至大战结束时，德国驱逐舰的吨位则已经上涨到了1,200吨左右，并搭载有3门10.5cm火炮和6具50cm鱼雷发射管。
In 1918 there appeared the first of a newer and larger German design which displaced 2,400 tonnes. These ships, S113 and V116, were still under development at the war's end, a number of their sister-ships remaining incomplete in November 1918...The S113 type carried 15cm guns, a large jump in calibre compared to the standard 10.5cm destroyer weapons. The handling of such large projectiles on a lively gun platform, especially one whose seaworthiness was suspect, must have been almost impossible. S113 and V116 also introduced a heavier torpedo calibre, 60cm, which was not featured by any other destroyer...They were not particularly successful, being top-heavy, unsteady and slow.
另外，至1918年时，德国海军还建成了一种新式的驱逐舰，其吨位大幅提升到了了2,400吨，但最终建成的只有S113号和V116号，其余的姐妹舰则未能在大战结束前完工。这种驱逐舰搭载有15cm火炮，相比于先前的10.5cm火炮，是一个巨大的提升；同时她们还搭载了60cm鱼雷发射管，这也是其他德国驱逐舰所不具备的。然而，这种驱逐舰的设计并不算很成功，因为其存在上层重量过大、稳定性不足的问题，且航速也偏低。另外，对于这样的不够稳定、且适航性较差的炮术平台来说，搬运15cm那么大口径的炮弹，想必是非常困难的。
德国驱逐舰的侧视图
从上到下，分别为战前建造的V25型驱逐舰、战时建造的H145型驱逐舰（属于战时急造型）、以及大战末期建造的S113型驱逐舰。
V25型驱逐舰，配备有3门8.8cm火炮、6具50cm鱼雷发射管（水上），最大航速为33.5节；H145型驱逐舰，配备有3门10.5cm火炮、6具50cm鱼雷发射管（水上），最大航速为32节；S113型驱逐舰，配备有4门15cm火炮、4具60cm鱼雷发射管（水上），最大航速为34.5节。
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结论：与战列舰、战列巡洋舰、轻巡洋舰的情况相比，一战时期的英国驱逐舰的设计取舍，显然要简单很多——R级、改R级、S级这样的中等吨位的设计，具备航速更快、成本更低、建造量更大的优势，而V级、W级、改W级这样的较大吨位的设计，则具备战斗力更强的优势。由于航速本质上是由动力系统决定的，而更强劲的动力系统意味着更高的造价，因此这两种类型的驱逐舰之间的取舍，本质上就是数量与质量之间的取舍。至于同时期的德国驱逐舰的设计取舍则表明，对于驱逐舰来说，适航性是一个相当重要的指标。总的来说，为了追求更高的航速、更强的火力、更好的适航性，驱逐舰的大型化趋势，可以说是不可避免的；但如果过于追求火力，而丧失了必要的适航性，则是得不偿失的。 本帖最后由 seven_nana 于 2023-3-18 09:14 编辑
四、五花八门的潜艇设计
第一次世界大战，是人类历史上首次大规模运用潜艇的战争。通过这场战争，英德两国的潜艇设计水准和运用战术，都得到了长足的发展。
英国海军的潜艇设计
在第一章 - 英国海军的两强标准、第三章 - 费舍尔与无畏舰革命以及第四章 - 英德造舰竞赛中，我们介绍过，在1901-1911年间，英国海军先是订购了霍兰德型、A级、B级、C级这四种近岸潜艇，接下来又订购了D级和E级这两种远洋潜艇。其中，霍兰德型是由美国人设计的，A级、B级、C级是由维克斯公司设计的，而D级和E级则是由海军部设计的。
然而，在1912-1918年间，英国海军除了继续建造E级之外，还建造了多种不同类型的潜艇，她们包括：S级、W级、V级、F级、鹦鹉螺号、剑鱼号、G级、H级、J级、K级、L级、M级、R级。可以说，在这一时期，英国海军的潜艇发展，呈现出了百花齐放、或者说百鬼夜行的态势。这是为什么呢？
第一个原因：寻找维克斯公司以外的供应商
之所以会有各种千奇百怪的潜艇，第一个原因，是英国海军想要打破维克斯公司在潜艇领域的垄断局面。根据Norman Friedman（British Submarines in Two World Wars, P.63）和D. K. Brown（The Grand Fleet: Warship Design and Development 1906-1922, P.84）的说法：
In 1911 the recently-appointed ICS Roger Keyes suspected that the Royal Navy had erred in deriving its submarines from Holland’s prototype...Hall had declared Laurenti’s double-hull submarine substantially inferior to the British single-hull type...Keyes felt otherwise...His advisory committee persuaded him that the Admiralty/Vickers designs were inferior to those of Italian and French companies and that Vickers could not build sufficient numbers of submarines...He sent his assistant Commander A P Addison, DNC’s submarine expert H G Williams and Engineer Commander Garwood (E-in-C’s diesel expert) to visit the FIAT San Giorgio yard, which built Laurenti submarines. They unanimously recommended that the Admiralty buy a FIAT boat...As a result Scotts were licensed to build FIAT designs under licence which became S 1-3...The alternative to Laurenti was the French Laubeuf double-hull submarine...Against the recommendations of the inspecting team, Armstrong’s were licensed by the French company Schneider to build W 1-4 to a Laubeuf design.
1911年时，新上任的潜艇部队指挥官，罗杰·凯斯上校，对现有的英国潜艇设计提出了质疑。他的前任，悉尼·霍尔上校认为，相比于意大利的劳伦蒂型双壳体潜艇，英国海军的基于霍兰德型发展而来的单壳体潜艇，明显要更为优秀。但凯斯上校并不这么认为，后者的顾问委员会告诉他，海军部及维克斯公司的潜艇设计，要逊色于意大利和法国的潜艇设计，并且维克斯公司还存在产能不足的问题。在此情况下，凯斯将他的副手艾迪生中校、造舰局的潜艇专家威廉姆斯、以及轮机总监下属的柴油机专家加伍德轮机中校，派去访问菲亚特圣乔治奥船厂，即建造劳伦蒂型潜艇的船厂。他们三人一致建议，海军部应购买此类潜艇。在此情况下，英国的斯科特公司，基于菲亚特公司的技术授权，建造了3艘S级潜艇（S代表斯科特）。除了劳伦蒂型之外，另一种选择是法国的劳伯夫型双壳体潜艇。尽管专家们并未推荐这种潜艇，但阿姆斯特朗公司还是拿到了法国施耐德公司的授权，并基于劳伯夫型的设计，建造了4艘W级潜艇（W可能是指惠特沃斯，阿姆斯特朗的全称是阿姆斯特朗-惠特沃斯）。
All seven of these vessels were handed over to the Italian Navy soon after completion as they were not thought worth the waste of scarce submarine crew.
在战争爆发之后，上述的这7艘潜艇，在建成之后都被转交给了意大利海军；原因在于，英国海军的潜艇艇员太少了，不值得浪费在这些潜艇上。
第二个原因：多样化的潜艇类型规划
之所以会有各种千奇百怪的潜艇，第二个原因，是英国海军的潜艇发展规划，变得更为多样化了。根据Nicholas A. Lambert（British Naval Policy 1913-1914 Financial Limitation and Strategic Revolution, P.14-17）和Christopher M. Bell（Sir John Fisher's Naval Revolution Reconsidered: Winston Churchill at the Admiralty, 1911-1914, P.17）的说法：
From 1900 onward, Captain Reginald Bacon, the first inspecting captain of submarines, had encouraged the development of submarines with the best possible underwater performance. This approach had been continued by his chosen successors, Captains Edgar Lees (1905-7) and Sydney S. Hall (1907-10)...In late 1910, Hall was replaced by Captain Roger Keyes, an officer with no previous experience of submarines. On taking office, Keyes soon demonstrated that he was attracted to the fleet submarine concept...Shortly after Churchill became First Lord, he directed the formation of a secret committee of experts to advise him on submarine matters. By appointing Roger Keyes the chairman and empowering him to select all the other members of the committee, he inadvertently strengthened the position of the fleet submarine lobby within the Navy. In February 1912, Churchill asked this committee to put forward definite recommendations on the design of future submarines. Their advice was to construct two types: small "economy-sized" submarines for coastal defense (F class) and fleet submarines. This left no place for the long-range (E-class) patrol submarine...Vice Admiral Henry Jackson (chief of the War Staff) wanted priority given to the building of (E-type) long-range patrol submarines capable of imposing a close blockade of the German coast.
英国海军的前三任潜艇部队指挥官，都强调要提高潜艇的水下潜航能力。但第四任潜艇部队指挥官，罗杰·凯斯上校，则希望发展出一种能伴随战列舰队行动的潜艇（即强调水上航速）。当丘吉尔成为海军大臣后，他决定要建立一个秘密委员会，来研究潜艇问题。丘吉尔任命凯斯，来担任这个委员会的主席，并全权委托他来决定该委员会的其他成员。在此情况下，这个委员会中，自然就聚集了舰队潜艇的支持者。1912年2月时，丘吉尔要求该委员会，就未来的潜艇设计问题给出明确的建议。他们给出的建议，是建造两种类型的潜艇：一种是吨位较小、造价低廉的近岸潜艇（即后来的F级），另一种则是舰队潜艇。而E级这样的远洋潜艇，则被排除在外了。然而，当时的海军参谋长，亨利·杰克逊中将，却希望优先建造具备远洋航行能力的E级潜艇，从而实现对德国沿岸地区的近距离封锁。
In August 1913 Churchill drafted a detailed minute describing the three distinct types Britain required. The first were 'coastal' vessels with limited range suitable for protecting the narrow waters around Britain itself. The second were 'overseas' vessels with considerably greater range, capable of operating near the enemy's shores. At the time he calculated that with 48 submarines of this type it would be possible to maintain a continuous blockade of the German coast. The third were 'fleet' submarines, which he described as a 'decisive weapon of battle; and as such must count in partial substitution of battleship strength'. Churchill suggested that three of four of these vessels should be grouped together into a submarine flotilla along with two fast light cruisers. Each flotilla would be 'considered equal as a decisive fighting unit to a first class battleship or battlecruiser'. The submarine would only be capable of supplanting the battleship when a new class had been developed capable of achieving a speed of around 24 knots...Churchill's own memorandum reveals that while his sympathies lay with Keyes, he acknowledged the War Staff was correct in arguing that the immediate operational requirement was for patrol submarines to blockade German.
1913年8月时，丘吉尔起草了一份内容详细的备忘录，描述了英国所需的三种不同类型的潜艇。第一种是近岸潜艇，续航能力有限，适合用于保护英国周边的水域。第二种是远洋潜艇，续航能力大得多，具备在敌方海岸活动的能力。根据他当时的计算，如果有48艘此类潜艇，就有可能对德国海岸进行持续性的封锁。第三种是舰队潜艇。丘吉尔称，这是一种决战利器，并且在经过折算后，可以计入战列舰规模的统计数据。丘吉尔提出，可以将3到4艘舰队潜艇，与2艘高航速的轻巡洋舰，混编成一个潜艇中队。以决战力量来衡量的话，每个中队的战斗力都相当于一艘新式的战列舰或战列巡洋舰。基于丘吉尔的这份备忘录，我们不难看出，一方面他是支持凯斯的，但另一方面，他也认同海军部参谋局的观点，即英国海军急需建造远洋潜艇，来执行对德封锁任务。
近岸潜艇：F级、S级、V级、W级
英国海军建造四种不同类型的近岸潜艇。前述的S级和W级，在大战爆发后交给了意大利海军。而F级和S级，则被英国海军留下自用了。根据D. K. Brown的说法（The Grand Fleet: Warship Design and Development 1906-1922, P.85）：
The ‘V’ class by Vickers and the Admiralty ‘F’ class were satisfactory in meeting requirements, but the war showed there was little use for such small boats and only three ‘Fs’ and four ‘Vs’ were built.
维克斯公司设计的V级、以及海军部设计的F级，都能满足设计要求。但战时经验表明，这种小吨位潜艇的价值不大，因此F级只建造了3艘，而V级则只建造了4艘。
战时紧急外购的近岸潜艇：H级、改H级
大战爆发后，英国海军紧急订购了一批美国潜艇，她们被命名为H级。H级也属于近岸潜艇。根据Norman Friedman（British Submarines in Two World Wars, P.124）和D. K. Brown（The Grand Fleet: Warship Design and Development 1906-1922, P.128-129）的说法：
The first new type of submarine ordered in wartime was the US-built ‘H’ class...Fisher was worried about the slow delivery rate of new submarines and was delighted when Bethlehem Steel offered to build twenty in the USA. President Wilson objected that it infringed US neutrality and after various discussions it was decided that the first ten boats would be built in the Canadian Vickers yard at Montreal. The first keel was laid in January 1915, launched in April and all ten sailed for the UK that summer. The remaining ten were to be built in the USA and a stricter interpretation of the law meant that none reached the RN.
英国海军在战时订购的第一种新潜艇，是美国建造的H级潜艇。当时费舍尔对潜艇的缓慢建造速度感到了担忧，因此在美国的伯利恒钢铁公司表示，可以为其建造20艘潜艇的时候，费舍尔非常开心。然而，美国总统威尔逊反对这笔生意，他认为这违反了美国的中立政策，因此在经过商讨后，最终决定，订单中的前10艘潜艇，交由维克斯公司在加拿大蒙特利尔的船厂建造。这10艘潜艇，在1915年1月至4月间陆续开工，并在当年夏天时相继建成并前往英国。至于在美国建造的那10艘，由于受到法律的严格限制，最后并未交付给英国海军。
They were conventional single-hull boats, well designed and built, of much the same size as the ‘F’ and ‘V’ classes. The engines were much admired, powerful for their size and reliable. They carried four 18in torpedo tubes in the bow. Though rather small, they were well liked and in January 1917 Vickers were asked to build twelve improved versions, and in June a further twenty-two were ordered from various builders. Many were cancelled and only a total of twenty-two of the thirty-four ordered were completed. The main difference was that the British built ‘Hs’ had four 21in torpedo tubes.
这些潜艇，采用了常规的单壳体结构，尽管在吨位上与F级和V级相当，但设计和制造水平都很高。她们的动力系统很强劲，可靠性也很不错，因此颇受赞誉。其武备配置，是4具位于舰艏的18英寸鱼雷发射管。至1917年1月时，英国海军又要求维克斯公司，再建造12艘改良款的H级潜艇。1917年4月时，英国海军又向其他几家造船厂，追加了22艘订单。不过，这34艘订单中，最终只有22艘得以建成，其余都取消了。与加拿大/美国建造的H级相比，英国建造的改H级潜艇，主要区别是她们的鱼雷配置，升级为4具21英寸鱼雷发射管。
改H级的三视图
改H级潜艇，配备有4具21英寸鱼雷发射管（水下），最大水上航速为11.5节、最大水下航速为10.5节。
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远洋潜艇：E级、G级、L级
E级是一战时期最为成功的英国潜艇设计，G级是双壳体版本的E级，L级则是E级的后续发展形态。这些远洋潜艇，是一战时期英国潜艇部队的主力成员。根据D. K. Brown的说法（The Grand Fleet: Warship Design and Development 1906-1922, P.83 & P.86 & P.131-132）：
The ‘E’ class was possibly the best British submarine design of all time and among the best in the world at the outbreak of war. The design began as a slightly improved ‘D’ but as usual the number of changes grew...D 1 cost £79,910, and later boats up to £89,000...More powerful engines and motors were fitted increasing speed both on the surface and submerged at the expense of further increases in size and cost, which rose to up to £101,900 in the first six...It was feared that the ‘Ds’ were already too long to manoeuvre for a bow shot and as a result the ‘Es’ were given a pair of beam tubes. There was a single bow tube in the first eight boats after which a second was fitted and they had a single stern tube, all tubes being 18in. Six boats were fitted as minelayers with twenty mines carried in the ballast tanks in lieu of the beam torpedo tubes...E 1-6 were ordered from Vickers under the 1910-11 Programme and the fifty-sixth and last of the class was ordered in November 1914.
E级，可能是有史以来最为优秀的英国潜艇设计，并且也是一战时期最优秀的潜艇设计之一。起初，英国海军打算在D级潜艇的基础上做出小幅改进，但后来，需要改进的内容就变得越来越多了。与D级相比，E级搭载了更为强劲的柴油机和电动机，因此具备更高的水上和水下航速，但其尺寸和造价也随之上涨了。D1号的造价是8万英镑，后续的D级潜艇，造价最高者可达8.9万英镑，而最初的6艘E级，造价则增加到了10.2万英镑。考虑到D级的舰体较长，发射鱼雷时可能存在舰艏指向调整不便的情况，因此E级的艇体左右两舷，分别配备了1具鱼雷发射管。除此之外，E级的舰艏和舰艉，也都有鱼雷发射管，其中，E1号-E8号的舰艏和舰艉都是1具鱼雷发射管，但自E9号起，则将舰艏鱼雷发射管增加至2具，舰艉则仍为1具。这些发射管都是18英寸的。有6艘E级潜艇，是按照布雷潜艇的规格建造的，她们并未配备艇体左右两舷的鱼雷发射管，但其压载水舱内则携带有20枚水雷。E级潜艇总共建造了56艘，其中E1-E6号是在1910-1911财年时订购的，而E56号则是在1914年11月时订购的。
The ‘G’ class were a double hull design, equivalent to the saddle tank ‘E’ class...Initially, the new class was intended to have a single 21in torpedo tube fore and aft and an 18in on either beam but the single forward tube was replaced by two 18in. Fourteen boats were completed (one cancelled) and were found satisfactory, although the saddle tank ‘E’ classes were preferred.
与采用鞍形水舱结构的E级不同，G级采用了双壳体结构。这种潜艇，最初打算在舰艏和舰艉各配备1具21英寸鱼雷，并在左右两舷各配备1具18英寸鱼雷，不过后来，舰艏的鱼雷发射管，改成了2具18英寸。英国海军总共建造了14艘G级潜艇（此外还有1艘订单被取消了，即订单总数是15艘），他们对这种潜艇感到满意，但更喜欢采用鞍形水舱结构的E级。
The ‘L’ class were originally designed as improved ‘Es’ but the changes were so great that they were re-classified as a new class...The first eight boats had four 18in bow tubes and one 18in on either beam. L9 and later boats were further modified, the main change was in fitting four 21in bow tubes in place of the 18in. The beam 18in tubes were retained. Even before the first ‘L’ class boat went to sea a further improved design was started. L50 group had six 21in bow tubes and none on the beam. The beam tubes were omitted in those equipped as minelayers - L 14 and 17 with sixteen tubes and L 24-27 with fourteen tubes.
L级，起初只是在E级的基础上做出改进，但由于改进范围很大，因此获得了单独的舰级名称。在鱼雷配置方面，L1号-L8号，配备有6具18英寸鱼雷发射管，其中舰艏4具，左右两舷各1具；自L9号起，则将舰艏的4具鱼雷发射管升级为21英寸，舯部的2具则仍然是18英寸；自L50号起，又提升至6具21英寸鱼雷发射管，且均位于舰艏区域。按照布雷潜艇的规格建造的那些，则没有艇体左右两舷的鱼雷发射管，L14号和L17号能够携带16枚水雷，L24号-L27号则能携带14枚水雷。
中晚期型E级的三视图
中晚期型E级潜艇，配备有1门12磅火炮、5具18英寸鱼雷发射管（水下），最大水上航速为15节、最大水下航速为9节。
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G级的三视图
G级潜艇，配备有1门3英寸火炮、1具21英寸鱼雷发射管（水下）、4具18英寸鱼雷发射管（水下），最大水上航速为14.25节、最大水下航速为9节。
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中期型L级的三视图
中期型L级潜艇，配备有1门4英寸火炮、4具21英寸鱼雷发射管（水下）、2具18英寸鱼雷发射管（水下），最大水上航速为17节、最大水下航速为10.5节。
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舰队潜艇：鹦鹉螺号、剑鱼号、J级、K级、改K级
英国海军尝试过多种舰队潜艇设计，但实战经验证明，这条发展路线，在当时的技术条件下是走不通的。根据Norman Friedman（British Submarines in Two World Wars, P.64 & P.76-78 & P.83 & P.87）和D. K. Brown（The Grand Fleet: Warship Design and Development 1906-1922, P.85 & P.124-127）的说法：
Nautilus was Vickers’ pre-war approach to building an fleet submarine...It completed late in 1917 at 1441 tons with a speed of 17kts but never entered operational service. Her completion was delayed by more urgent work and by the time she did complete she was outdated by wartime developments. Her engines were a new design by Vickers and were never developed into reliability.
鹦鹉螺号，是维克斯公司在战前设计的舰队潜艇，不过由于其工期被耽搁了，因此直到1917年时才完工。该艇配备的柴油机，是维克斯公司新设计的，但存在可靠性差的问题。该艇的排水量达到1,441吨，具备17节的航速，但在建成之时，其性能参数已经过时了，因此从未正式服役过。
When Vickers received the Nautilus contract, DNC asked Laurenti in Italy via its licensee, Scotts, for its own approach to fleet submarine design, which became Swordfish...The steam-driven Swordfish displaced 932 tons on the surface and reached 18kts. It took only 1½ minutes to close her funnel for diving but Swordfish was thought unsatisfactory and, after trials, was converted into a surface patrol boat. However, in many ways she was a very advanced design and many of her novel features were copied in later British submarines...The wartime ‘J’ and ‘K’-class submarines were of Laurenti type.
在维克斯公司接到鹦鹉螺号的订单之后，造舰局还提过斯科特公司，向劳伦蒂发出了设计舰队潜艇的邀约。其结果就是剑鱼号实验潜艇。剑鱼号是采用蒸汽轮机驱动的，下潜前需要花1分半的时间来关闭烟囱，其水上排水量为932吨，具备18节的航速。由于该艇在试航中表现不佳，因此后来被改造成了巡逻艇。尽管如此，剑鱼号的许多设计，都是非常先进的，因此她的许多特征，在后续的英国潜艇上得到了延续。战时建造的J级和K级潜艇，就属于劳伦蒂型潜艇。
The ‘J’-class were the first attempts at an submarine capable of working directly with a fleet. They were too slow, and never fulfilled that role, but they were very useful pickets off the German fleet base at Wilhelmshaven...Vickers were reluctant to attempt the development of an entirely new engine of much greater power. They suggested a 12-cylinder variant of the 8-cylinder diesel engine of the ‘E’ class. DNC designed a three-shaft submarine, but the expected surface speed was only 19½kts. The electric motors for submerged propulsion were fitted on the wing shafts only. They mounted four bow and two broadside torpedo tubes, all 18in...Eight ‘J’-class submarines were ordered from Royal Dockyards, but two were cancelled.
J级潜艇，是英国海军最早的量产型舰队潜艇。由于维克斯公司不愿开发一款全新的柴油机，而是建议采用基于E级的8缸柴油机发展而来的12缸柴油机，因此造舰局在该潜艇上采用了三轴推进设计，不过只有在水面航行时才会使用三轴，在水下航行时只使用双轴，原因是中轴上并未安装电动机。由于这种潜艇的设计水上航速仅有19.5节，因此因此难以履行伴随舰队的职能，但作为观察哨使用时，却发挥了很好的作用。该级配备有6具18英寸鱼雷发射管，其中舰艏有4具、舰艉有2具。英国海军总共订购了8艘J级潜艇，但后来有2艘订单被取消了。她们都是在皇家船厂建造的。
Diesels could never provide the desired high speed, so the Admiralty build the ‘K’-class...In the spring of 1913, the DNC had prepared the design of a large, fast, steam-driven submarine of 1700 tons and a speed of 24kts. During development a number of important changes were made..these brought the displacement to 1980 tons (surfaced), 2566 tons (submerged)...the torpedoes were 18in...with four bow tubes, two on either beam and a twin revolving unit in the superstructure. They were given two 4in and one 3in AA gun...The ‘K’ class have generally been considered grotesque failures, proofs that the very idea of close support by fast submarines was defective...twenty-one boats were ordered at a cost of £340,000 each...Of these submarines, K 18-K 21 were all reordered in 1917 as ‘M’-class ‘submarine monitors’. Finally, early in 1918 K 23-K 28 were ordered to an improved ‘K’-class design. Only K 26 was completed...She had six 21in bow tubes, retaining the 18in beam tubes. Three 4in guns were mounted. She had much more internal ballast and more oil carried externally. The re-arrangement of ballast tanks enabled her to dive faster. The increased displacement led to a ½kt loss of speed.
由于柴油机无法提供高航速，因此海军部又订购了K级潜艇。在1913年春天时，造舰局长设计了一种吨位达到1,700吨、航速达到24节、由蒸汽轮机驱动的大型高速潜艇。不过，在设计过程中，出现了许多调整，因此实际的排水量达到了1,980吨（上浮状态）/2,566吨（下潜状态）。这种潜艇配备有10具18英寸鱼雷发射管：舰艏4具，左右两舷各2具，上层建筑区域还配备有1具可旋转的联装鱼雷发射管。该级的火炮配置也很强大，搭载有2门4英寸火炮和1门3英寸高射炮。K级潜艇通常被认为是一种怪诞的失败产物，这也证明，让潜艇伴随战列舰队行动，这种设想本身可能就是有问题的。英国海军订购了21艘K级潜艇，每艘造价高达34万英镑。不过在1917年时，K18-K21号的订单，被改成了M级重炮潜艇（下文中会介绍）。另外，在1918年初时，英国海军又订购了6艘改K级潜艇，但只有K26号得以完工。该艇在舰艏区域布置有6具21英寸鱼雷发射管，左右两舷则各配备有2具18英寸鱼雷发射管，同时她还搭载了3门4英寸火炮。与其他的K级相比，该艇的压载水舱和燃油舱都更大，具备更快的下潜速度，但最大航速下降了0.5节。
J级的三视图
J级潜艇，配备有1门3英寸火炮、6具18英寸鱼雷发射管（水下），最大水上航速为19.5节、最大水下航速为9.5节。
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K级的三视图
K级潜艇，配备有2门4英寸火炮、1门3英寸火炮、10具18英寸鱼雷发射管（2具水上+8具水下），最大水上航速为24节、最大水下航速为9.5节。
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重炮潜艇：M级
所谓的重炮潜艇，是在潜艇上搭载大口径火炮的一种尝试。根据Norman Friedman（British Submarines in Two World Wars, P.128）和D. K. Brown（The Grand Fleet: Warship Design and Development 1906-1922, P.131）的说法：
In 1915, a Submarine Design Committee was convened to decide future policy. The first meeting (8 September 1915) considered six alternative types: (1) coastal, (2) patrol, (3) fleet submarine, (4) cruiser submarine, (5) minelayer, and (6) monitor. The first two already existed and the value of (3) would be gauged after the first-of-class trials. The cruiser (4) was considered feasible, but it would have few targets. Two ‘E-boats were already being converted to minelayers. That left only (6), the monitor, for near-term construction. It would be used for surprise attack, the submarine popping up and firing.
1915年时，英国海军成立了一个潜艇发展委员会，来研究接下来的潜艇建造策略。在1915年9月8日举行的第一次会议上，他们研究了六种类型的潜艇：(1) 近岸潜艇，(2) 远洋潜艇，(3) 舰队潜艇，(4) 潜水巡洋舰，(5) 布雷潜艇，(6) 重炮潜艇。前两种已经有了。第三种需要等待试航结果，才能做出进一步决定。第四种固然有其价值，但目前并不需要。第五种也已经有了。在这种情况下，短期内需要建造的，就是重炮潜艇了。这种潜艇可用于发起突然袭击，在上浮之后对敌方舰艇开火。
Four boats were ordered in 1916. All mounted a 12in/40 calibre; M 1 and 2 had four 18in bow tubes, the others had 21in tubes (M 4 was not completed). Perhaps surprisingly, they handled well. The so-called ‘dip-chick’ firing procedure was practised frequently, in which the submarine would approach the surface until the muzzle was about 6ft out of water; the muzzle door would be opened, the gun fired under periscope control (usually at a range of 1200yds making a hit almost certain) and the boat would go under again. The record exposure time is said to have been 35 seconds though 75 seconds was more usual. The gun could only be reloaded on the surface which took about 3 minutes...The gun was never used operationally. The three ‘Ms’ remained in service after the war and took part in numerous exercises.
英国海军总共建造了4艘重炮潜艇，但只有前3艘建成，M4号则并未建成。她们都搭载有1门12英寸/40倍径火炮，M1和M2号在舰艏搭载有4具18英寸鱼雷发射管，M3号搭载的则是21英寸鱼雷发射管。这种潜艇的可操控性还不错，其实际运用方式是，潜艇上浮至炮管高出水面6英尺，打开炮口防水门，在潜望镜瞄准下开火（射击距离通常在1,200码以内，因此通常都能击中目标），随后再度下潜。这种攻击流程，暴露在水面上的平均时间是75秒，最快纪录则为35秒。不过，火炮的装填工作必须在上浮状态下才能完成，且需要花费约3分钟时间。这些潜艇从未在实战中发射过这种火炮。大战结束后，3艘M级潜艇仍然继续服役，并参与了不少演习。
M级的三视图
M级潜艇，配备有1门12英寸火炮、4具18英寸鱼雷发射管（水下），最大水上航速为15节、最大水下航速为9节。
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反潜潜艇：R级
世界上最早的用来执行反潜任务的潜艇，是英国海军发明的。根据Norman Friedman（British Submarines in Two World Wars, P.137）和D. K. Brown（The Grand Fleet: Warship Design and Development 1906-1922, P.129-130）的说法：
The one wartime type not considered by the Submarine Design Committee was one specialised for attacking submarines...In March 1917 DNC submitted a design for a small submarine with high underwater speed as a submarine hunter. This was then not approved but later in the year Commodore (S) suggested that the design be completed and it was then approved and twelve boats were ordered in October. They had a surface speed of 9.5kts and a design speed of 15kts submerged. Reports clearly state that 15kts was achieved on trial at the ‘1 hour rate’ of battery discharge.
在大战时期，英国海军还建造了一种潜艇发展委员会并未研究过的潜艇类型：反潜潜艇。1917年3月时，造舰局长提交了一种具备很高的水下航速，能用来猎杀敌方潜艇的小型潜艇。起初，海军部委员会并未批准这个方案，但当年晚些时候，潜艇部队指挥官建议应建造这种潜艇，因此在当年10月时，英国海军订购了12艘此类潜艇。她们的水上航速为9.5节，水下航速则高达15节（设计值）。不过，试航结果表明，15节的水下航速只能维持1小时。
The ‘R’ class were single-hull boats. They had six 18in bow tubes, quite big enough to sink a submarine. There was an array of five hydrophones forward which, it was hoped, would enable an attack to be carried out fully submerged. Unfortunately, the only time an ‘R’ class boat carried out an attack against an enemy submarine, the torpedo failed. Most of the class were scrapped in 1923.
R级潜艇是单壳体结构的，配备有6具18英寸鱼雷发射管，这个口径用来对付潜艇已经足够了。其舰艏区域，还配备有5具水听器，目的是让她们能在潜水状态下发起攻击。不过，R级只获得过一次攻击敌方潜艇的机会，但却因为鱼雷发生故障而未能取得战果。该级潜艇，大部分都在1923年时拆解了。
R级的三视图
R级潜艇，配备有6具18英寸鱼雷发射管（水下），最大水上航速为9.5节、最大水下航速为15节。请注意，该级在设计阶段是打算搭载1门4英寸火炮的，但实际建造时并未搭载。
https://www.warships.com.cn/data/attachment/album/202210/03/141434kyv7aaj9re7zv39e.png
德国海军的潜艇设计
在第四章 - 英德造舰竞赛中，我们介绍过，由于提尔皮茨不希望建造大量的实验性质的潜艇，因此德国海军开始建造潜艇的时间要晚于英国。因此在大战爆发之时，英国潜艇部队的规模是要大于德国潜艇部队的。
不过，在大战爆发后，德国海军的潜艇建造规模开始扩大，除了常规的Ms型战时急造潜艇之外，他们还研发出了多种不同类型的潜艇：近岸潜艇（UB型）、近岸布雷潜艇（UC型）、远洋布雷潜艇（UE型）、运输潜艇（德意志号、不来梅号）、潜水巡洋舰（U151型、Project 46型、Project 47型）等。
战时急造潜艇：Ms型
大战爆发之后，德国海军以现有的潜艇设计为基础，建造了大量的战时急造潜艇。根据Eberhard Rössler的说法（The U-Boat - The Evolution and TechnicaI History of German Submarines, P.38 & P.54 & P.56）：
The mobilization plan provided for the immediate placing of contracts for boats of the most recently built U41 type (four torpedo tubes) and U45 type (six torpedo tubes)...Mobilization (Ms) boats.
基于战时动员计划，德国海军以最新锐的U41型（配备有4具鱼雷发射管）和U45型（配备有6具鱼雷发射管）潜艇设计为基础，立刻下达了更多的订单，这就是Ms型战时急造潜艇（Ms是动员的意思）。
In a memorandum dated April 1915, the UI emphasized the importance it attached to the U-boat blockade of Britain by announcing an enlarged U-boat, Project 31...On 16 June 1915, the RMA requested the UI to carry out a comprehensive investigation of Project 31, with the other departments in the light of wartime operations. A boat could then be built in accordance with this project...The result was a new plan for a large Ms U-boat (Project 42)...In the course of the project, surface displacement increased to 1,200 tons...With the enlarging of bunker capacity, the surface range was increased.
至1915年4月时，潜艇部门发表了一份备忘录，强调应建造吨位更大的潜艇，来执行对英国的封锁行动。他们拿出的设计方案，代号为Project 31。1915年6月16日时，海军部要求潜艇部门和其他部门一起，基于战时经验，对这个设计方案进行仔细研究，并在完成研究后形成建造方案。其结果，就是一种设计代号为Project 42的大吨位的战时急造潜艇。这种设计方案的吨位，上涨到了1,200吨（先前的战时急造潜艇的吨位在8,00吨左右），拥有更大的燃料舱容积，因此其水面续航里程有较大提升。
By the autumn of 1915, a new design for an improved Ms U-boat had been completed, under the designation 'Project 43'...It envisaged increased bunkerage to provide a 27 per cent greater surface range...In some respects, this type may be seen as a smaller version of Project 42.
至1915年秋天时，潜艇部门还拿出了一个改进版的战时急造潜艇的设计方案，其代号为Project 43。与此前的战时急造潜艇相比，这种方案的燃料舱容积也有所提升，因此水面续航里程增加了27%。从某种程度上来说，这个方案就是缩小版的Project 42。
Ms型战时急造潜艇潜艇的侧视和剖视图
下图中，从上到下，分别为常规的Ms型潜艇（两种版本）、Project 42型潜艇（大吨位的Ms型）、Project 43型潜艇（改进版的Ms型）。
常规的Ms型潜艇，配备有4具或6具50cm鱼雷发射管（水下），火炮配置和最大航速则视具体批次而各有差异；Project 42型潜艇，配备有1门15cm火炮，6具50cm鱼雷发射管（水下），最大水上航速为17.6节、最大水下航速为8.1节；Project 43型潜艇，配备有1门10.5cm火炮，6具50cm鱼雷发射管（水下），最大水上航速为16节、最大水下航速为9节。
https://www.warships.com.cn/data/attachment/album/202210/05/221238r4it1c4t22mtmcm3.jpg
近岸潜艇和近岸布雷潜艇：UB型和UC型
1、德国海军之所以会建造近岸潜艇和近岸布雷潜艇，最初是因为德国陆军占领了比利时沿岸地区，从而为潜艇行动提供了良好的基地。根据Eberhard Rössler的说法（The U-Boat - The Evolution and TechnicaI History of German Submarines, P.39-40 & P.44）：
After Belgium had been invaded, the Belgian coastline afforded bases for operations in the English Channel. With this in mind, on 18 August 1914, the RMA asked the UI to investigate the possibility of producing a large number of small U-boats that could be operational before the short war envisaged came to an end...The advances made by the German Army in Belgium increased the demand for coastal U-boats to be made available as soon as possible and, on 14 September, the UI were asked to look into the question of building small U-boats that could be transported by rail. Having received several designs that met this requirement, the RMA accepted Project 34...Because of their limited size, only single-hull construction and single-propeller propulsion would be used...On 15 October, the building of this new Type UB was authorized.
当德国陆军侵占比利时后，德国海军便可将比利时沿岸作为基地，并在英吉利海峡进行活动了。在此情况下，海军部于1914年8月18日时询问潜艇部门，有没有可能赶在战争结束前，建造出大量的小型潜艇（当时德国人还认为他们能够速战速决地结束战争）。后来，随着德国陆军在比利时占领越来越多的土地，德国海军对近岸潜艇的需求也与日俱增。至1914年9月14日时，海军部命令潜艇部门，设计一种能用铁路运输的小型潜艇；后者拿出了多个符合要求的方案，其中得到海军部批准的方案，代号是Project 34。由于这种潜艇吨位有限，因此是单壳体、单轴驱动的（德国潜艇的主流设计是鞍形水舱、双轴驱动）。1914年10月15日，海军部批准了UB型近岸潜艇的建造工作（后改名为UBI型）。
On 11 September, Dr. Werner (head of TB. I) went over the heads of the Admiralty Staff at the RMA and suggested that small minelaying boats be built for use off the French coast. The UI was subsequently asked to look into the question of building a U-boat intended solely for minelaying...Type UB was taken as a starting point: the forward section of the boat was redesigned to accommodate mine tubes and 12 mines...On 23 November 1914, orders for the new Type UC were placed.
另外，在1914年9月11日时，有人提议，建造一种能在法国沿岸行动的小型布雷潜艇。在此情况下，潜艇部门接到要求，设计一种专门用于布雷行动的潜艇。他们以UB型潜艇作为起点，并对潜艇的前部舱段进行了重新设计，在此加入了能够容纳12枚水雷的布雷管道（该设计方案的代号为Project 35a）。1914年11月23日，海军部批准了UC型近岸布雷潜艇的建造工作（后改名为UCI型）。
2、后来，德国海军又相继设计出了吨位更大、性能更强的UBII型和UBIII型近岸潜艇，以及UCII型和UCIII型近岸布雷潜艇。根据Eberhard Rössler的说法（The U-Boat - The Evolution and TechnicaI History of German Submarines, P.40 & P.44 & P.50 & P.56 & P.76）：
Although the small UB type of boats had fulfilled the role for which they were designed, their duration and armament were not equal to the increasing demands made on U-boats as the war progressed. A particular disadvantage was the single-shaft propulsion unit; in the event of an engine breakdown, the boat was completely helpless. It became obvious that, when new contracts for small U-boats were being considered, this type would not be retained. In April 1915, therefore, the UI announced its Project 39, for an enlarged coastal U-boat with a two-shaft drive, greater surface speed and greatly increased surface range: later it was designated Type UBII...These improvements could only be achieved by significantly increasing the weight of the boats, so it was no longer demanded that they be transportable by rail. This, in turn, meant that restrictions on the diameter of the pressure hull were no longer necessary, so saddle tanks were fitted to the pressure hull to house the greatly-increased fuel-oil supply. (Subsequently, with the U-boat playing a greater role in the Mediterranean, it was demanded that the boats be transportable by rail in separate components.)
尽管UB型潜艇能够满足其设计职能，但由于吨位较小，因此其续航能力和武备都比较弱。于是，随着战争的持续深入，这种潜艇渐渐地不能满足潜艇战的要求了——其最明显的缺点，是单轴驱动的设计——在遭遇发动机故障的情况下，这种潜艇就会完全失去动力（双轴的潜艇有两套发动机，因此可以互为冗余）。于是，德国人打算不再继续建造这种潜艇，而是要设计一种新的小型潜艇。在1915年4月15日时，潜艇部门拿出了代号为Project 39的设计方案，即后来的UBII型近岸潜艇，其吨位要比UBI型更大，并且采用了双轴驱动设计，因此具备更快的水面航速。另外，由于不再要求通过铁路进行运输，于是艇体尺寸上的限制也放宽了。在此情况下，这种潜艇还采用了鞍形水舱设计，于是其燃油搭载量及续航能力得以大幅提高。再后来，由于德国海军需要在地中海部署潜艇，因此又提出了通过铁路，将近岸潜艇进行分段运输的需求。
In the summer of 1915, the UI published its Project 41 for a larger minelaying U-boat (Type UCII), with wet storage facilities for 18 mines in the forward part of the boat. In addition, three torpedo tubes were carried.
至1915年夏天时，潜艇部门又拿出了代号为Project 41的设计方案，即后来的UCII型近岸布雷潜艇，其吨位要比UCI型更大，能够在艇体前部舱段内搭载18枚水雷（UCI型只能搭载12枚），并且还搭载了3具鱼雷发射管（UCI型没有鱼雷发射管）。
In their memorandum of April 1915, the UI had called for a simplified U-boat for deployment in the blockade against Britain. The shortage of Ms U-boats was occasioned by their relatively long building time and the use of the 1,200hp engines, delivery times of which inevitably deterrruned orders for U-boats. The renewal of unrestricted submarine warfare early in 1916 made imperative the development of a medium-sized U-boat that could be built quickly. The Type UBII coastal boat was too lightly armed for this purpose, and its range confmed it to the North Sea and the English Channel. The new U-boats would need to be capable of operating around the British Isles, and in the Mediterranean. Type UCII (Project 41) served as a prototype. A new profile was given to the forward section of the boat, the minelaying shafts were replaced by a torpedo compartment with four 50cm submerged torpedo tubes. Apart from this, the successful UCII construction was hardly changed...This was Project 44, later to be designated Type UBIII.
根据潜艇部门在1915年4月发表的备忘录，他们还呼吁建造一种能够用来封锁英国的简易型潜艇——当时已有的MS型战时急造潜艇，建造工期相对较长，且其使用的大马力发动机的交付时间也比较长，从而也限制了这种潜艇的产量。而UBII型近岸潜艇则存在武备不足，且续航能力有限，只能在北海和英吉利海峡活动（而无法对英伦三岛进行全方位封锁）的问题。至1916年初，德国海军恢复无限制潜艇战后，他们急需一种中等吨位的、能快速建造的潜艇。在此情况下，就需要设计一种能够在英伦三岛或地中海区域活动的新潜艇。潜艇部门以Project 41（即UCII型）作为基础，发展出了代号为Project 44的设计方案，即后来的UBIII型近岸潜艇。两者的区别，主要在于艇体前段区域有所不同，UCII型上搭载的布雷管道，在UBIII型上被4具50cm鱼雷发射管所取代。其他方面，则没有太大的改动。
By 1917...in view of the importance of minelaying and the heavy losses of UC boats...a request was made that new UC minelaying U-boats be built as replacements for losses...This U-boat, designated UCIII (Project 41a), differed only in externals from the UCII type.
最后，至1917年时，由于布雷潜艇承担的任务很重要，但损失也较大，因此德国海军提出要再建造一些新的近岸布雷潜艇。潜艇部门拿出的设计方案，代号为Project 41a，后来被命名为UCIII型。这种潜艇与UCII型的差异不大，只是在艇体外部的设计上有所不同。
UB型近岸潜艇的侧视和剖视图
下图中，从上到下，分别为UBI型、UBII型、UBIII型近岸潜艇。
UBI型潜艇，配备有1挺机枪，2具45cm鱼雷发射管（水下），最大水上航速为6.5节、最大水下航速为5.5节；UBII型潜艇，配备有1门5cm火炮，2具50cm鱼雷发射管（水下），最大水上航速为9.2节、最大水下航速为5.8节；UBIII型潜艇，配备有1门8.8cm火炮，5具50cm鱼雷发射管（水下），最大水上航速为13.6节、最大水下航速为8节。
https://www.warships.com.cn/data/attachment/album/202210/05/083214w7648ii40e666h48.jpg
UC型近岸布雷潜艇的侧视和剖视图
下图中，从上到下，分别为UCI型、UCII型、UCIII型近岸布雷潜艇。
UCI型潜艇，未配备火炮和鱼雷，但可搭载12枚水雷，最大水上航速为6.2节、最大水下航速为5.2节；UCII型潜艇，配备有1门8.8cm火炮，3具50cm鱼雷发射管（2具水上+1具水下），可搭载18枚水雷，最大水上航速为11.6节、最大水下航速为7节；UCIII型潜艇，配备有1门10.5cm火炮，3具50cm鱼雷发射管（2具水上+1具水下），可搭载18枚水雷，最大水上航速为11.5节、最大水下航速为6.6节。
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远洋布雷潜艇：UE型
除了近岸布雷潜艇之外，德国海军还有建造远洋布雷潜艇。根据Eberhard Rössler的说法（The U-Boat - The Evolution and TechnicaI History of German Submarines, P.44 & P.57 & P.59）：
The small UC boats, because of certain constructional limitations (short building time, necessity to transport them by rail, use of ready-made launch engines) were very restricted in their deployment: their storage tubes were underwater, and depth settings for the mines could not be reached for adjustment while at sea. It became imperative to produce a truly ocean-going minelaying U-boat. As early as 5 January 1915, the UI completed designs for Project 38 - Type UE - a minelaying type with dry storage for 34 mines. Additionally, a small torpedo armament was to be provided. To achieve a short building time, a simple, single hull form was adopted.
由于UCI型近岸布雷潜艇的吨位较小，且在建造方面受到诸多限制（需要尽可能短的建造周期，同时需要能使用铁路进行运输），因此这种潜艇在实战运用上，是颇为受限的——其搭载的水雷，平时是储存在布雷管道内的，且在出海后，水雷的定深就无法调节了。在此情况下，德国海军认为，有必要建造一种具备远洋航行能力的布雷潜艇。1915年1月5日时，潜艇部门完成了代号为Project 38的设计方案，即后来的UEI型布雷潜艇。这种潜艇能在艇体内部搭载34枚水雷，并且可以在出海后，对其定深进行调节。另外，UEI型布雷潜艇，还搭载有鱼雷发射管（UCI型没有鱼雷发射管）。不过，为了缩短建造周期，UEI型也像UCI型一样，采用了单壳体的结构。
The construction programme for the minelaying boats U71-U80 had been rushed through in a short time, and this factor manifested itself in the numerous defects and unreliability of the boats, and led, quite early on, to the desire for an improvement of this type. Following the successful UCII construction, there was not the same degree of urgency for a large minelaying boat, and, initially, it was considered part of the longterm plan. The urgent need for a boat equipped with dry storage for mines did not crop up until the beginning of 1916, when it was planned to resume the campaign against merchant shipping...This UI Project 45 depended, in its principal features on Project 43.
由于UEI型布雷潜艇的设计和建造过程，是颇为匆忙的，因此这种潜艇存在不少缺点，可靠性也不够好。于是，德国海军希望建造一种更优秀的远洋布雷潜艇。然而，由于UCII型近岸布雷潜艇的设计非常成功，因此对于德国海军来说，远洋布雷潜艇的迫切性，并不是很高。于是，相关工作就变成了一项长期规划。直到1916年初时，德国海军恢复了无限制潜艇战后，他们才急需建造远洋布雷潜艇。在此情况下，潜艇部门以Project 43为基础，拿出了代号为Project 45的设计方案，即后来的UEII型布雷潜艇。
UE型远洋布雷潜艇的侧视和剖视图
下图中，上方为UEI型远洋布雷潜艇、下方为UEII型远洋布雷潜艇。
UEI型潜艇，配备有2具50cm鱼雷发射管（水上），可搭载34枚水雷，最大水上航速为10.6节、最大水下航速为7.9节；UEII型潜艇，配备有1门15cm火炮，4具50cm鱼雷发射管（水下），可搭载42枚水雷，最大水上航速为14.7节、最大水下航速为7节。
https://www.warships.com.cn/data/attachment/album/202210/05/083218h3gz3xkuojg3xced.jpg
运输潜艇和潜水巡洋舰：德意志号、不来梅号、U151型、Project 46、Project 47
运输潜艇，是德国海军所独有的潜艇类型。而潜水巡洋舰，尽管英国海军也曾设想过，但在大战时期，只有德国海军实际建造了这种类型的潜艇。根据Eberhard Rössler的说法（The U-Boat - The Evolution and TechnicaI History of German Submarines, P.67 & P.71 & P.73-75）：
By 1915, the British blockade of Germany had brought about a distinct shortage of raw materials, especially nickel and rubber, and several attempts to deliver essential commodities to Germany had failed. The State Secretary of the Treasury hit on the idea of using U-boats to bring in supplies. The solution seemed to be the building of unarmed cargo U-boats...On 28 March 1916, the first boat, Deutschland, left the slipway and was ready for trials six weeks later. The second boat, Bremen, followed shortly afterwards...Deutschland made two voyages...Bremen sailed on her maiden voyage at the end of 1916, but was lost at sea, cause unknown.
受到英国的海上封锁的影响，至1915年时，德国已经出现了明显的工业原材料短缺现象，尤其是镍和橡胶非常短缺。他们曾数次尝试过将关键物资运回德国，但都以失败告终。在此情况下，德国财政部国务秘书（相当于财政部长）想到了用潜艇来运输物资的主意。具体来说，就是建造无武装的、专门用来运货的潜艇。德国海军的首艘运输潜艇，德意志号，于1916年3月28日滑下船台，并在6周后做好了试航的准备。第二艘运输潜艇，不来梅号，很快也建成了。其中，德意志号完成了两趟运输任务，而不来梅号则在是在1916年底的首航时，就沉入了大海，具体原因不明。
After Deutschland's successful trials, 6 more cargo U-boats to this tested pattern were ordered...Meanwhile, the proposed role of these boats had been changed. As early as 2 September 1916, the UI had suggested that two of them be used for war purposes. Of three possible conversion options - fuel-transporting U-boat, minelaying U-boat or U-cruiser with heavy artillery - the last seemed the most appropriate. A U-boat armed with 15cm guns, with a long range and good submerged qualities would, despite her slow speed, have good chances of success when operating on distant trade routes. On 16 December 1916, 4 cargo U-boats being built were changed to a war role and designated U151-U154. Following the decision to restrict submarine warfare from 1 February 1917, it was also decided to convert the remaining 3 cargo U-boats and designate them U155-U157.
在德意志号完成试航后，德国人又订购了6艘运输潜艇（这6艘中不包括不来梅号），但后来，这些潜艇的职能设定发生了改变。在1916年9月2日时，潜艇部门就建议，将其中的2艘改作其他用途。他们提出了三种改装方案：一是改装成燃料运输潜艇，二是改装成布雷潜艇，三是改装成强调火炮配置的潜水巡洋舰。最后一个方案看起来最为合适。尽管潜艇的航速较低，但在15cm火炮、长续航能力、以及良好的潜航能力的加持下，这种潜水巡洋舰是有能力在偏远的贸易航线上开展通商破坏任务的。至1916年12月16日时，有4艘正在建造的运输潜艇，被改成了潜水巡洋舰，其艇号为U151-154。至1917年2月1日后，由于德国海军又恢复了无限制潜艇战，因此剩余的3艘运输潜艇，也被改成了潜水巡洋舰，其艇号为U155-157（其中U155号就是原先的德意志号）。
The Naval Staff requested large, powerful U-cruisers which could serve as commerce raiders, and they ordered the UI, on 27 May 1916, to design and build a U-boat of this kind as soon as possible. At the RMA, representatives of the UI discussed this problem of providing larger U-boats with an increased surface performance, which could successfully take on armed merchant ships. In the opinions of those involved, the U-cruisers would need to have powerful guns and be well armoured...For these U-cruisers a higher surface speed was desirable...This was designated Project 46...Permission was granted on 1 August 1916 for three U-cruisers, U139-U141...On 23 October 1916, the UI decided to place contracts for a further 9 boats of the improved type, Project 46a. They were to have new engines...These would give a speed of 18 knots, as against the 15 knots of the Project 46 boats.
另一方面，海军总参谋部则提出，要建造大吨位的、具备强大火力的潜水巡洋舰，来执行通商破坏任务。1916年5月27日时，海军总参谋部命令潜艇部门，尽快设计出此类用途的潜艇。而在海军部内，潜艇部门的成员则探讨了如何强化大型潜艇的水面作战能力，从而使其具备对抗武装商船的能力，在他们看来，潜水巡洋舰应具备强大的火炮配置，并带有装甲保护。除此之外，这些潜水巡洋舰还应具备更快的水上航速。这种潜艇的设计代号是Project 46，1916年8月1日时，海军部批准建造3艘此类潜艇，艇号是U139-141。至1916年10月23日时，潜艇部门又决定追加9艘改进型号（Project 46a）的订单，其区别在于换装了新式的发动机，因此最大水面航速从原先的15节提高到了18节（Project 46a最终仅有一艘建成，即U142号）。
As early as the summer of 1916, the UI had considered the possibility of a fast, powerfully-armed and armoured U-cruiser that could operate as a commerce raider in distant waters...The first sketch for an armoured cruiser, Project 'P' (Panzerkreuzer: armoured cruiser) dated 18 June 1916...A developed plan designated 'Project 47' was ready at the beginning of 1917...The enormous building cost and long building time provoked fierce controversy as to the practicality of this design. On 1 May 1917, an official pronouncement from the Admiralty established that, compared with Project 46, the UI's Project 47 called for a doubling of displacement, crew and building costs without achieving any notable increase in endurance, submerged speed, or accommodation for a prize crew. On the positive side, there was a significant increase in the surface top speed, doubling of the gun armament, a strengthening of the torpedo armament and a considerable increase in armoured protection. But the design fell short of what was expected from a U-cruiser, in that speed was lacking and potential for good observation was less than could be desired. Nor did the Navy Staff consider Project 47 as cost-effective in her proposed role of commerce raider. In unrestricted submarine warfare, the smaller, cheaper and more quickly-built Ms U-boats were much more useful than very large U-boats. For operations in more distant waters, the auxiliary cruiser had proved herself suitable.
至1916年夏天时，潜艇部门认为，有必要建造一种具备强武备、高航速、且带有装甲防护的潜水巡洋舰，以便在遥远的海域执行通商破坏任务。1916年6月18日，他们拿出了代号为Project P（P指Panzerkreuzer，即装甲巡洋舰）的设计方案。至1917年初时，他们又拿出了更为完善的设计方案，其代号是Project 47。由于该设计案的建造成本非常高、建造周期也非常长，因此围绕着这种设计是否具备可行性，引发了巨大的争论。至1917年5月1日时，海军部正式发布了官方声明，认为与Project 46相比，Project 47在吨位、建造成本、以及艇员数量上都增涨了一倍，但在续航能力和水下航速方面并无明显的优势，且也不能搭载更多的额外的船员（这些额外的船员是负责操作捕获的商船的）。不过，Project 47的水上航速有了明显提高，火炮数量翻倍，鱼雷武备和装甲防护也得到了显著增强。然而，从潜水巡洋舰的角度来说，这种潜艇是不称职的，因为其航速还是不够快，同时也缺乏良好的观察能力。海军总参谋部同样也不看好Project 47，他们认为其效费比不够高。在无限制潜艇战的背景下，吨位较小、造价较低、建造周期更短的MS型战时急造潜艇，明显要比这种超大吨位的潜艇实用。至于遥远海域的通商破坏行动，辅助巡洋舰已经成功地证明了其价值（Project 47最终停留在了设计方案的层面，并未得以实际建造）。
各型潜水巡洋舰的侧视与剖视图
下图中，从上到下，分别为U151型潜艇、Project 46型潜艇、Project 47型潜艇。
U151型潜艇，配备有2门15cm火炮、2门8.8cm火炮、具50cm鱼雷发射管（水下），最大水上航速为12.4节、最大水下航速为5.2节；Project 46型潜艇，配备有2门15cm火炮、2门8.8cm火炮、6具50cm鱼雷发射管（水下），司令塔装甲厚度为60+30mm（内外双层），最大水上航速为15.3节、最大水下航速为7.6节；Project 47型潜艇，配备有4门15cm火炮、2门8.8cm火炮、10具50cm鱼雷发射管（水下），司令塔装甲厚度为60+45mm（内外双层），艇体装甲最厚处达到60mm，最大水上航速为18节、最大水下航速为9节。
https://www.warships.com.cn/data/attachment/album/202210/05/222236v2s2q3lc19sss0sq.jpg
结论：在大战期间，英德两国都创造出了多种不同类型的的潜艇。在这些潜艇类型中，最为主要也最为常见的，就是近岸潜艇、远洋潜艇、布雷潜艇这三类。无论是英国还是德国，都建造了大量的近岸潜艇和远洋潜艇，同时也都有建造布雷潜艇。除此之外，由于英国海军热衷于让潜艇参与水面舰艇编队作战，因此还建造了舰队潜艇；而德国海军有通商破坏作战的需求，因此还建造了潜水巡洋舰。总体来看，当时的潜艇，是无法做到多功能的，因此针对不同的任务需求，有必要设计和建造不同类型的潜艇。
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