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日德兰纪念系列 - 军舰建造篇 - 第二章 - 威廉二世、提尔...

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发表于 2019-10-19 11:56 | 显示全部楼层 |阅读模式
本帖最后由 seven_nana 于 2023-3-5 21:54 编辑

前言

1916年5月31日下午,英国海军的大舰队与德国海军的公海舰队,在北海东部、靠近丹麦及挪威的区域相遇,随即爆发了一场规模庞大的海战。双方交战的区域,从陆上来说临近日德兰半岛,而从海上来说临近丹麦与挪威之间的斯卡格拉克海峡,因此分别被参战双方称之为日德兰海战(英方叫法)和斯卡格拉克海峡海战(德方叫法)。这场海战是整个第一次世界大战中规模最大的海战,同时也是有史以来规模最大的以战列舰为主力的海战。

关于这场海战的前因后果,各国学者们早就发表了无数的研究文章和专著,其中既有研究战略战术的,也有研究技术细节的。而军舰建造的话题,则会同时涉及到战略战术及技术细节,并且还与整个国家的政治经济情况产生关联。因此,若想从宏观层面理解日德兰海战,军舰建造是一个非常好的切入点。在本篇中,我希望能覆盖到军舰建造所涉及的方方面面的话题,为读者提供一个纵览全局的视野。



索引

第一章 - 英国海军的两强标准

此章介绍了英国海军在19世纪末至20世纪初时推行的两强标准,及其对英国海军带来的影响。

第二章 - 威廉二世、提尔皮茨、舰队法

此章介绍了德国皇帝威廉二世及德国海军元帅提尔皮茨,以及后者所推行的舰队法,对德国海军带来的影响。

第三章 - 费舍尔与无畏舰革命

此章介绍了英国海军元帅费舍尔所推行的无畏舰革命。

第四章 - 英德造舰竞赛

此章介绍了英德两国间的造舰竞赛的前因后果,并就双方的建设成果进行了对比。

第五章 - 军舰设计的要求与取舍

此章对英德两国海军的部分军舰的设计进行了解读,并就设计背后的要求与取舍等因素进行了探讨。

中将

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 楼主| 发表于 2019-10-19 12:56 | 显示全部楼层
本帖最后由 seven_nana 于 2022-10-6 10:26 编辑

日德兰纪念系列 - 军舰建造篇 - 第二章 - 威廉二世、提尔皮茨、舰队法

本帖内容未经允许不得转载

主要参考资料:

Tirpitz and the Imperial German Navy,作者Patrick J. Kelly

The Navy and German Power Politics, 1862-1914,作者Ivo Nikolai Lambi

'Luxury' Fleet: The Imperial German Navy, 1888-1918,作者Holger Herwig

The Kaiser's Battlefleet: German Capital Ships 1871-1918,作者Aidan Dodson

The Development of the Small Cruiser in the Imperial German Navy,作者Dirk Nottelmann

The Kaiser's Cruisers, 1871-1918,作者Aidan Dodson & Dirk Nottelmann



第一章 - 英国海军的两强标准中,我们介绍了世纪之交时的英国海军的军舰建造情况。在本章中,我们将把视角切换至德国,对这个国家的军舰建造情况进行解读。

一、前提尔皮茨时代的德国海军

与坐落于不列颠群岛上的英国不同,德国位于欧洲大陆,且其大部分领土都位于内陆,只有北部地区毗邻海洋,是一个典型的大陆国家,因此并没有什么值得夸耀的海军传统。自17世纪中期以来,德国一直处于小邦林立的状态,缺乏统一的政权。在这些邦国中,实力最强的,是普鲁士与奥地利。最终,普鲁士战胜了奥地利,并于1871年时,建立了统一的德意志帝国(不含奥地利)。普鲁士的陆军,在历史上拥有着辉煌的战绩,曾经击败过包括法国陆军在内的多个强大的敌人。甚至还有人表示:“普鲁士并非一个拥有军队的国家,而是一个由军队拥有的国家”。但普鲁士的海军,则完全没有什么拿得出手的战绩。因此,德国陆军的声望和荣誉,要明显高于德国海军。

另一方面,相比于其在欧洲大陆的几个主要竞争对手,德国在地缘环境上是颇为不利的——在英法俄德四国中,英国的地缘环境最好,不列颠群岛与欧洲大陆隔海相望,狭海是英国的天然国防屏障;法国和俄国的地缘环境次之,他们都与德国这个拥有强大陆军的邻居接壤,但其他陆地邻国则都不是一流强国;德国的地缘环境是最差的,他位于欧洲大陆中央,同时与法俄这两个陆军强国接壤。对于德国来说,如果他们无法抵御法国和俄国陆军的进攻,那就是灭顶之灾般的威胁了,因此在这种情况下,德国陆军的规模与军费,一直都是大大高于海军的。

在这些因素的影响下,在德意志帝国建国之初时,德国海军的地位,是要明显低于德国陆军的。然而,随着德国国力的快速提升,其野心也开始进一步扩大——他们不再满足于先辈们创下的大国(Großmacht)地位,而是鼓吹要将德国打造为世界强国(Weltmacht);同时,他们也背离了俾斯麦时代的现实政策(Realpolitik),并提出了所谓的世界政策(Weltpolitik)——对于这种野心的最著名的表述,出现于1897年12月6日——时任德国外交部国务秘书的伯恩哈特·冯·比洛(Bernhard von Bülow),在帝国议会的辩论中宣称:我们不想让任何人站在阴影里,但我们也渴望阳光下的地盘(wir wollen niemand in den Schatten stellen, aber wir verlangen auch unseren Platz an der Sonne)。在当时的德国人眼中,建设强大的海军,是实现其世界强国梦想的重要工具,因此从19世纪末期开始,德国人走上了建造大海军的道路。

接下来,我们具体来聊一聊,在前提尔皮茨时代,德国海军的大致情况是什么样的。

1、在建军之初时,德国海军是由陆军军官负责指挥的。根据Holger H. Herwig的说法('Luxury' Fleet: The Imperial German Navy, 1888-1918, P.12-15):

The Navy from 1872 until 1888 was commanded by Army officers. The first of these, Albrechtorn Stosch, instilled the junior service with Prussian military esprit de corps, and transferred to it the drill and regulations of the Prussian Army. The general assigned the Navy primarily coastal defence functions, once describing it as a "living coastal defence". The principal opponent being France, and later a possible Franco-Russian combination. When Stosch left office in 1883, he left behind a fleet consisting of 7 armoured frigates and 4 armoured corvettes, and personnel consisting of 423 officers and 5,062 ratings.
在1872至1888年间,德国海军的最高长官,都是由陆军军官担任的。其第一任长官,阿尔布雷希托恩·冯·斯托施,为海军注入了普鲁士陆军的团队精神,并在海军中引入了陆军的训练方式和规章制度。在这位陆军将军的掌控下,海军的主要职能,被定义为海岸防御,他有一次甚至将海军称作是“活着的岸防设施”。当时,德国海军的主要假想敌是法国,后来由于法俄之间越走越近,因此他们又不得不同时防备法俄两国。至1883年,斯托施离任之时,德国海军总共拥有11艘铁甲舰(其中7艘较大、4艘较小)。

His successor, Leo Graf v. Caprivi, was an Army general obsessed with the notion of a war on two fronts, against France and Russia, and he spent his term in office developing elaborate coastal defence plans. These centred especially upon the deployment of shallow draught monitors as well as torpedoes and mines. Only in 1887 did Caprivi ask for the construction of ten armoured frigates, wishing to conserve "every man and every penny" for the expected land war. Caprivi left the Navy in 1888 with 18 armour-clads, and 8 large and 10 small cruising ships.
斯托施的继任者,利奥·冯·卡普里维,也是位陆军将军。他认为,德国需要同时与法国和俄国进行作战,因此他想要把资金和人员都尽可能省下来留给陆军。在卡普里维的主导下,德国海军发展出了一套详尽的岸防作战计划,其核心力量是浅水重炮舰与鱼雷水雷。直到1887年时,他才提出要建造10艘铁甲舰。至1888年,卡普里维离任之时,德国海军总共拥有18艘铁甲舰和18艘巡洋舰(其中8艘较大、10艘较小)。

2、德皇威廉二世,以醉心于海军事务而著称。根据Ivo Nikolai Lambi(The Navy and German Power Politics, 1862-1914, P.31-32 & P.34)和Holger H. Herwig('Luxury' Fleet: The Imperial German Navy, 1888-1918, P.24)的说法:

The accession of Wilhelm II on 15 June 1888...undoubtedly provided significant stimulus for German naval construction. His childhood interest in ships and naval matters had been encouraged by his parents. During his visits to England he had visited English dockyards and inspected Nelson's flagship, Victory. English naval power greatly fascinated him and he was extremely proud when, in 1889, his grandmother Queen Victoria named him admiral of the British fleet, an appointment which he considered more than honorary. Upon ascending to the throne, claims Wilhelm, he "immediately took in hand the building and reform, yes, one can say building anew, of the German fleet on the basis of preliminary studies in England and at home."
1888年6月15日,威廉二世登基,成为德国皇帝。对于德国海军来说,这无疑是一个极大的利好消息。受到其父母的影响,威廉二世自孩童时代以来,就一直醉心于舰船和海军事务(威廉二世的母亲,是英国维多利亚女王的长女,维多利亚长公主)。当威廉前往英国访问之时,他曾参观过英国码头,并检阅了纳尔逊的旗舰,胜利号风帆战列舰。英国的海军力量,深深的吸引了威廉。在1889年时,当他的祖母,维多利亚女王,任命他为英国海军元帅时,威廉二世是非常自豪的,因为在他看来,这并不仅仅是一个荣誉性质的头衔。威廉二世宣称,在他登基之后,他立刻就着手于德国海军的改革工作了,他将基于英国和德国所作的各类研究,打造出一支全新的德国海军。

On 5 July 1888 Wilhelm had appointed the first naval officer, Vice-Admiral Alexander Graf v. Monts, to head the Admiralty.
1888年7月5日时,威廉二世任命亚历山大·冯·孟茨中将,担任德国海军的最高长官。后者也是德国海军中,第一位以海军军官身份担任此岗位的人。

Bernhardt von Bülow was to maintain: "What Wilhelm I accomplished for the army, he [Wilhelm II] wanted to achieve for the navy. While Wilhelm I succeeded in the unification of Germany, Wilhelm II wanted to found German naval importance [Seegeltung] and thereby German world position."
伯恩哈特·冯·比洛(曾担任过德国外交部国务秘书及德国首相)表示:“威廉一世借助陆军实现了伟业,而威廉二世则希望借助海军实现同样的伟业——前者实现了德国的统一,后者则希望建立起德国的海上地位,并由此确立德国在世界上的地位”。

Why did Wilhelm think that Germany needed a navy? Above all, to be a world power, to protect her trade, and to assert her power abroad. In his speech on 8 February 1895, Wilhelm pointed out that the extent of a nation's maritime commerce ought to be the measuring-stick for the size of her navy. In Germany's case, whose commercial shipping in general ranked fourth and whose steamshipping ranked second in the world, the navy failed to measure up altogether.
威廉二世,为何认为德国需要一支海军呢?最为重要的原因,是如果想要成为一个世界强国,那么就需要一支海军来保护其贸易,并在海外彰显其实力。1895年2月8日时,威廉二世在讲话中表示,一个国家的海上贸易实力,应成为其海军规模的衡量标杆。对于德国来说,其海上贸易规模已经达到了世界第四,而其蒸汽船队的规模则已经达到了世界第二。相比之下,其海军实力排名则明显落在了后面。

3、为了更好的掌控海军,威廉二世还对德国海军的高层权力机构进行过多次调整。根据Holger H. Herwig('Luxury' Fleet: The Imperial German Navy, 1888-1918, P.21)和Patrick J. Kelly(Tirpitz and the Imperial German Navy, P.4 & P.163)的说法:

Shortly after William II ascended the throne in 1888 he demanded more direct control of the navy. On 30 March 1889 William II dissolved the Imperial Admiralty into three parts, modeled, he thought, on the army’s organization. A High Command (Oberkommando, or OK), led by a Commanding Admiral, conducted solely military matters and thereby was not “tainted” by contact with the Reichstag. A State Secretary of the RMA, another naval officer, would deal with the Reichstag about the naval budget. Although a member of the Chancellor’s cabinet, he was still subject to military discipline. A Naval Cabinet (Marinekabinett, or MK) handled personnel matters within the navy.
威廉二世希望能加强对海军的控制。在登基后不久,他就对海军进行了改组,在1889年3月30日时,他下令将海军部(Imperial Admiralty)一分为三,形成了海军总司令部(Oberkommando,缩写OK)、海军部(Reichsmarineamt,缩写RMA)、海军内阁(Marinekabinett,缩写MK)三足鼎立的局面(这种模式参照了德国陆军的组织架构,德国陆军的最高权力机构,是由总参谋部、陆军部、军事内阁共同构成的)。海军总司令部的长官是海军总司令,其职能完全局限于军事事务,因此是不受议会影响的。海军部的长官是海军部国务秘书,这个职位也是由海军军官担任的,但他同时也是内阁成员之一,因此需要与议会打交道。海军内阁则是负责人事工作的。

On 14 March 1899 William II issued his decision to dissolve the OK and redistribute its functions. The Admiralstab Section of the old OK became the Admiralstab, responsible for operational planning, intelligence, and direction of ships abroad. The Admiralstab, along with the Chiefs of the North Sea and Baltic Stations, the Inspectorate of Training, the Chief of the I Squadron, and the Chief of the Overseas Cruiser Squadron would all report directly to the Emperor.
至1899年3月14日时,威廉二世又对海军总司令部进行了改组,将其麾下的参谋部门单独拆解为海军总参谋部,负责作战计划拟定、情报收集等工作。至于原先的海军总司令职位,则被取消了。在此情况下,海军总参谋长、海军训练总监、地区司令部的长官、以及舰队的指挥官,都成为了平级,他们都可以直接向皇帝汇报(因此大权被牢牢掌握在了皇帝的手中)。

结论:由于英德两国在历史、地缘环境等多个方面都存在显著差异,因此截止至威廉二世登基为止,德国从未曾拥有过世界一流水准的海军。在威廉二世登基之后,在这位热衷于海军事务的皇帝的干涉下,德国海军的高层权力机构得到了调整,德皇对海军的掌控权得到了强化,但其舰队规模仍然远远落后于英法俄等海军强国。



二、建军思想的转变

前面我们已经介绍过,在威廉一世的时代,德国海军的定位,主要是一支近岸防御性质的部队,因此其主要作战力量是岸防铁甲舰和鱼雷、水雷舰艇。但众所周知,在提尔皮茨治下,德国海军则是以战列舰为核心的。那么问题来了,这个转变过程,是如何发生的呢?

1、在19世纪末时,主流的海军建设思想,可分为传统学派与新学派两类。包括威廉二世和提尔皮茨自己在内,很多人都曾受到新学派的影响。根据Holger H. Herwig的说法('Luxury' Fleet: The Imperial German Navy, 1888-1918, P.15 & P.20):

Europe's reliance upon ships of the line was severely challenged in the 1870s and 1880s by the writings of the French Jeune École (young school) of Admiral Theophile Aube. The latter argued rather forcefully and convincingly at first that torpedo-boats were the main weapon with which secondary naval powers could hope to neutralize the British battleship superiority. Aube later refined his thought along the lines of guerre de course, that is, of the need to build cruisers with which to interdict Britain's immense merchant fleet and thereby to deprive her of the requisite imports. At a still later point the submarine was to become a major weapon in the arsenal of minor naval powers against first-class maritime nations.
在1870和1880年代时,战列舰的地位,遭到了新学派(Jeune École)的严重挑战。后者是由法国海军中将泰奥菲尔·奥布创立的学说,该派别认为,二流的海军国家,可以借助鱼雷艇来抵消英国海军在战列舰数量上的优势。后来,奥布还在其学说中加入了通商袭击的内容,希望借助巡洋舰来攻击英国的海上贸易船队,从而阻止英国获得进口物资。再后来,潜艇也成为了海军弱国对抗海军强国的有力武器。

The counter-argument of La Vieille École (the old school) revolved round the battleship as the locus of the battle fleet, and in 1890 it received a tremendous boost with the publication of Alfred Thayer Mahan's The Influence of Sea Power upon History. Mahan argued that a concentration of naval force in battle fleets decided control of vital sea lanes; that large-scale blockades and not cruiser warfare were decisive; that overseas colonies were vital to a nation's prosperity; that naval bases were more valuable than control of large land areas; and that sea power alone guaranteed the rise of a nation to world stature.
与新学派相对应的,则是旧学派(Vieille École),后者强调战列舰是舰队的核心力量。至1890年代时,随着阿尔弗雷德·塞耶·马汉的著作【海权对历史的影响】的问世,旧学派的声势得到了显著提升。马汉认为,通过集中海军力量进行舰队决战,可获得关键海域的制海权;而大规模的海上封锁,或巡洋舰作战,则不能取得决定性的效果。他还认为,海外殖民地,会让国家变得繁荣昌盛;海军基地的作用,要比大片陆地领土更为重要;且只有凭借强大的海上力量,才能建立起世界性的强国。

Initially, Wilhelm II had been a disciple of the Jeune École. Cruisers could best defend German interests in far-flung colonies and in time of war might keep even the most formidable naval power off-balance. The Kaiser shared Mahan's Darwinistic analysis of the influence of sea power, but he also realized that the Reichstag would more readily agree to the construction of cruisers than it would to the creation of a battle fleet. The monarch was primarily interested in obtaining "more ships".
起初,威廉二世也是信奉新学派的。巡洋舰能够有效地保卫德国的殖民地利益,并且还能在战时干扰敌方的海上贸易。当马汉的学说问世后,德国皇帝接受了前者的观点,但他也意识到,想要让德国议会批准建造一支战列舰队,是比较困难的;但让德国议会批准建造巡洋舰,则会容易不少。只要能建造更多的军舰,这位皇帝都是乐见其成的。

Alfred Tirpitz ironically was initially (1877-88) an ardent advocate of torpedo-boats.
具有讽刺意味的是,在1870-80年代时,提尔皮茨自己曾大力倡导过鱼雷艇。

2、在1890年前后,德国海军开始建造其第一批大型军舰。根据Holger H. Herwig的说法('Luxury' Fleet: The Imperial German Navy, 1888-1918, P.24-27):

The first four battleships of the Brandenburg class. Designed to replace the antiquated 3,500-ton armour-clads, the new ships displaced 10,000 tons, attained a best speed of sixteen knots, and had a cruising range of 4,500 sea miles at ten knots. Six 28cm guns comprised the main battery, while eight each 10.5cm and 8.8cm guns and six 45 cm torpedo tubes formed the secondary armament.
德国海军的第一批战列舰,是4艘勃兰登堡级。这些军舰是用来替换老旧的3,500吨级的铁甲舰的,其吨位达到了10,000吨,最大航速为16节、续航能力为4,500海里/10节,配备有6门28cm火炮、8门10.5cm火炮、8门8.8cm火炮、6具45cm鱼雷发射管。

The Kaiser Friedrich III class, comprised of Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, Kaiser Friedrich III, Kaiser Barbarossa, Kaiser Karl der Grosse, and Kaiser Wilhelm II, was launched between July 1896 and April 1900. These ships displaced 11,500 tons. This class brought forth a development well in advance of other navies. The first chief designer of the Imperial Navy, Professor Alfred Dietrich, designed intricate underwater protection by a close system of watertight compartments to localize flooding. The Kaiser Friedrich III class constituted a setback in terms of armament development. This class carried a smaller main armament of four 24cm guns in accordance with the then prevalent tactical "hail of fire" principle, that is, to spray the enemy with a constant fire. Moreover, the 24cm gun at that time was the largest to which the quick-loading system could be applied.
在1896至1900年间,德国海军还建造了5艘腓特烈三世级战列舰。在德国海军的第一任首席设计师,阿尔弗雷德·迪特里希教授的指导下,该级采用了严密的水密分舱设计,能起到阻止进水蔓延的效果。相比同时代的其他军舰,这个设计是颇为领先的。但在火炮配置上,腓特烈三世级则开了历史的倒车——该级的主炮,采用的是4门24cm火炮。他们之所以会如此设计,原因在于洗甲板流派的盛行——在当时的情况下,24cm火炮,是德国人所能制造的最大口径的速射炮。

The years immediately prior to Tirpitz's appointment as State Secretary of the Navy Office witnessed the construction of the last class of large protected cruisers and the change-over to production of armoured cruisers. The large cruiser Kaiserin Augusta, launched in January 1892 by Germania in Kiel, was the first triple-screw unit of the Imperial Navy. Her successor, the Hertha class, represented the last five large cruisers in Germany: Freya, Hansa, Hertha, Victoria Louise, and Vineta. The Fürst Bismarck, built between 1896 and 1900, inaugurated Germany's development of armoured cruisers.
1892年时,德国海军的第一艘大吨位的巡洋舰,奥古斯塔皇后号,在基尔的日耳曼尼亚船厂下水了,这是德国海军第一艘三轴驱动的军舰设计(后续的许多德国大型军舰,都采用了这种设计)。此后,德国海军又建造了5艘维多利亚·路易斯公主级巡洋舰。这两级都属于防护巡洋舰。在提尔皮茨接手海军建设工作之前,德国海军所建造的大吨位的巡洋舰,刚刚经历了从防护巡洋舰构型向装甲巡洋舰构型的转变过程。1896至1900年间建造的俾斯麦侯爵号,是德国海军最初的装甲巡洋舰设计。

3、1894年时,提尔皮茨(当时他的职务是海军参谋长)针对海军建设话题发表了系统性的提议。根据Ivo Nikolai Lambi(The Navy and German Power Politics, 1862-1914, P.75-77)和Patrick J. Kelly(Tirpitz and the Imperial German Navy, P.96)的说法:

Tirpitz was able on 16 June 1894 to issue his famous Dienstschrift No. IX...Enclosure 1 dealt with the ships...The ship of the line must be a large ship no less than 8,000 tons and because of expense and German coastal conditions no larger than 15,000 tons. For ships of the line.Tirpitz did not consider speed of particular importance for actual battle, but wanted a cruising range of 3,400 sea-miles. The ships were to be equipped with heavy artillery of no less than 20 cm, middle artillery of 20 to 10 cm, and light artillery of less than 10 cm. Heavy artillery was to be used at a close range against the vital parts of enemy ships and at all ranges against particular enemy ship types, rapid-firing middle artillery was to play the major role in most battle situations, and light artillery was to be used against enemy torpedo-boats. In addition ships of the line were to be armed with torpedoes and a ram. Defensively, the ships should be secured through internal watertight partitions against the effect of torpedoes. Above the water-line protection should be provided against the armor-piercing shells of the middle caliber and against the grenades of the heavy caliber. Also the heavy and middle artillery should be protected against enemy middle-artillery fire.
1894年6月16日时,提尔皮茨发表了著名的IX号备忘录,其中的附件一,谈及了舰船问题。在提尔皮茨看来,战列舰应具备足够的吨位,至少8,000吨,但考虑到造价和德国沿海环境的因素,也不应超过15,000吨。提尔皮茨认为,在实战中,战列舰的航速并没有太大的作用,但他希望战列舰能具备3,400海里的续航能力。在火炮配置方面,应配备20cm以上的大口径火炮、10-20cm之间的中口径火炮、以及10cm以下的小口径火炮。其中,大口径火炮应能在各种距离上发挥火力,且能在近距离上击穿敌方军舰的核心区域;中口径火炮应具备高射速,并在绝大部分的战斗环境下承担主要作用;小口径火炮则是用来对付敌方的鱼雷艇的。除此之外,战列舰还应装备有鱼雷和撞角。在防御方面,战列舰应具备有效的水密分舱设计,以抵御鱼雷攻击。水线以上的舰体防御,则应能有效抵挡中口径的穿甲弹和大口径的高爆弹。中口径和大口径的火炮,则应能抵挡中口径的炮弹。

Tirpitz limited cruisers to two types: the heavy cruiser of more than 6,000 tons and the light cruiser of 2,000-3,000 tons. Both were to possess a cruising range of 5,000 sea-miles. The large cruiser should have a speed that would enable it to escape from or catch a battleship and to pursue torpedo-boats. Although the task of heavy cruisers was not the fighting of ships of the line, two large cruisers should be capable of fighting successfully one ship of the line. Therefore the light and middle artillery, ram, and torpedo weapons of a heavy cruiser should be equal to those of a battleship, whereas the heavy artillery and armor were to be lighter, so as to reduce the weight and size of the armored cruiser in comparison to the battleship.
对于巡洋舰,提尔皮茨将其分成了两类:大型巡洋舰的吨位超过6,000吨,小型巡洋舰的吨位则在2,000-3,000吨之间。这两种巡洋舰都应具备5,000海里的续航能力。其中,大型巡洋舰的航速应高于战列舰,并且应追得上鱼雷艇。尽管大型巡洋舰的任务并不是与战列舰进行交战,但两艘大型巡洋舰应能有效对抗一艘战列舰。因此,大型巡洋舰所搭载的中口径和小口径火炮,以及鱼雷和撞角这些武器配置,都应与战列舰相当。但为了降低大型巡洋舰的尺寸,其搭载的大口径火炮,以及装甲防护水准,都要逊色于战列舰。

The small cruiser was to be provided with the speed to elude a ship of the line and to give chase to torpedo-boats and the strength to resist hostile reconnaissance-ships of equal size and to enable several small cruisers to fight successfully a large cruiser. It was to have sufficient protection to remain afloat while most of its guns were still active. The main tasks of cruisers comprised security, reconnaissance and outpost duty. For their fulfillment they had to operate in groups.
小型巡洋舰的航速,也应高于战列舰,并且也应追得上鱼雷艇。在战斗力方面,其应能有效对抗敌方所派出的吨位相当的侦察舰艇;并且,数艘小型巡洋舰,应能与一艘大型巡洋舰进行对抗。

Of the light forces, torpedo-boats were viewed as most important for battle. Their strength lay in numbers, their small size, and speed which was to exceed considerably that of battleships. They should be sufficiently seaworthy to participate in strategic offensives against the enemy coast and sufficiently armed to fight enemy torpedo-boats.
至于轻型舰艇,从战斗角度看,鱼雷艇是最为重要的。鱼雷艇的优势在于舰体小、数量多、且航速远高于战列舰。鱼雷艇应具备足够的适航性,以便能参与到对敌方沿海地区的战略性进攻行动中。鱼雷艇的武备,则应能有效对抗敌方的鱼雷艇。

The type delineation was a great advance, although Hollmann and the RMA paid no attention. In particular, reduction of cruisers to only two types was a good idea. Dienstschrift IX did not entirely dismiss the Siegfried class of small coastal defense battleships, but it implied that their day was waning. Omitted were some of the old types such as corvettes, frigates, and dispatch boats. Of course, in 1894, the type reduction was purely hypothetical because Hollmann still controlled the budget.
相比于德国海军当时采用的分类法(四个等级的铁甲舰、四个等级的巡洋舰),提尔皮茨的提议无疑要更为先进,特别是将巡洋舰类型缩减为两种,显然是个很好的主意。在IX号备忘录中,提尔皮茨并没有彻底否定岸防铁甲舰的价值,但在他看来,这种军舰是没有未来的。至于那些老旧的军舰类型,如巡防舰、轻巡防舰、通报舰等,则被提尔皮茨排除掉了。当然了,由于当时担任海军部国务秘书的弗雷德里希·冯·霍尔曼,并未采纳这个提议,因此在1894年时,这种分类法只能停留在设想层面。

The second great advance of Dienstschrift IX was to designate the size of the fleet Tirpitz believed was needed for offensive deployment. His yardstick was a 1/3 superiority over whichever was larger, the French North Sea Fleet or the Russian Baltic Fleet: 17 Battleships (two squadrons of eight each, plus a flagship), 6 First-Class Cruisers, 12 Third-Class Cruisers, 6 Torpedo Boat Flotillas.
除此之外,在IX号备忘录中,提尔皮茨还对舰队规模进行了规划。在他看来,为了满足进攻性任务的需求,相比于法国北海舰队或俄国波罗的海舰队,德国舰队必须拥有至少1/3的数量优势,其规模应达到:17艘战列舰(1艘旗舰,外加2支战列舰中队,每个中队8艘战列舰)、6艘大型巡洋舰、12艘小型巡洋舰、6支鱼雷艇中队。

4、至1890年代后期时,提尔皮茨开始设想以英国为假想敌,来打造一支强大的德国舰队。为此,他强调战列舰的价值,同时对巡洋舰作战持反对意见。根据Holger H. Herwig('Luxury' Fleet: The Imperial German Navy, 1888-1918, P.32 & P.35-36 & P.38)和Patrick J. Kelly的说法(Tirpitz and the Imperial German Navy, P.133)的说法:

On 18 June 1897, Rear-Admiral Alfred Tirpitz  was appointed as State Secretary of the Navy Office - a post that he was to hold for the next nineteen years.
1897年6月18日时,阿尔弗雷德·提尔皮茨少将,被任命为海军部国务秘书。在这个岗位上,他一干就是19年之久。

In 1896 and again in 1897 he bombarded Wilhelm II with studies detailing sea battles against Great Britain in the North Sea. Only in this manner, he argued, could colonial concessions be wrung from Britain. "The bear skin", he slyly suggested, could not be divided up "before the bear is killed". In accordance with Mahan's "blue water" school, Tirpitz banked all on a decisive naval battle (Entscheidungsschlacht) in the southern or central North Sea in order to "kill the bear".
在1896和1897年时,提尔皮茨曾多次向威廉二世提交有关英德两国海军在北海水域内进行海战的研究。提尔皮茨表示,英国就好比是一头熊,而其殖民地则是熊皮。除非先杀掉这只熊,否则是无法扒下熊皮的。基于马汉的“蓝水”海军学说,提尔皮茨认为,在北海中南部进行的海上决战,是海军战略的关键所在。

Tirpitz put forth strategic and tactical reasons why the fleet had ultimately to be able to challenge the Royal Navy. The British, he argued, could never concentrate their entire sea power in the North Sea, where the Germa fleet could "unfold its greatest military potential between Helgoland and the Thames". Given his unbending belief in the effectiveness of massed torpedo-boat attacks against battle fleets, Tirpitz calculated that any attacking fleet would require at least 33 per cent numerical superiority. The Navy Office estimated in 1899 that with a battleship ratio of 2:3, Germany would possess a genuine chance of victory "even against the Royal Navy", owing to the higher quality of German ships, superior tactics, better-trained officers and ratings, first-rate leadership, and the centralized command-structure headed by the Kaiser - which, of course, was a fiction.
提尔皮茨从战略和战术的角度,阐述了这只舰队为何能够用来挑战英国海军。他表示,英国是无法将其所有的海上力量,聚集在北海水域的。而德国海军则可以在此水域中发挥重大的军事价值。由于提尔皮茨深信,大规模的鱼雷艇袭击能够有效伤害到战列舰队,因此他认为,进攻方的舰队必须拥有至少1/3的数量优势。根据德国海军部于1899年时所作的计算,如果德国海军的战列舰数量能达到英国海军的2/3,则有很大机会能打败英国海军,其原因在于,德国军舰的质量更好、战术更优秀、军官和水兵具备更高的训练水准、高层指挥官的能力更强、以及由皇帝掌控全局的指挥体系。当然了,这些只是他们自己的幻想。

Tirpitz probably did not intend to attack Great Britain and counted instead on British recognition of the danger posed by the German fleet concentrated in the North Sea. This recognition, in turn, would allow the emperor "to conduct a great overseas policy". Herein lies the quintessence of the so-called "risk theory" (Risikogedanke): the ultimate strength of the fleet would deter all eventual opponent from risking an all-out naval encounter with Germany because even if he emerged victorious from battle, such an enemy might then find himself at the mercy of a third strong naval power, or even coalition (France/Russia).
提尔皮茨本人,可能并不是真的打算向英国发起攻击。他可能是希望英国能意识到,在北海区域内,德国海军会对其构成严重的威胁。一旦英国意识到这个威胁,德国就能在海外事务上表现得更为从容了(即不再受到英国的挟制)。这个观点,就是所谓的风险理论(Risikogedanke)的核心思想了:德国海军的实力,将会对其潜在敌人产生阻吓效果,使其不敢与德国海军进行决战。因为即便敌方在决战中获得胜利,其实力也会大大受损,因此可能会被其他海军强国趁虚而入(例如,即便英国海军击败了德国海军,他们也可能被法俄同盟趁虚而入)。

Tirpitz dismissed the possibility of cruiser war against Britain because of Germany’s geographic position and lack of foreign bases. Cruiser war against France or Russia, or both, would fail as well because neither had much foreign seaborne trade and their colonies were well defended. The confrontation, then, could only take place between Helgoland and the Thames.
提尔皮茨认为,由于德国缺乏海军基地,且在地缘环境上也不具备优势,因此无法使用巡洋舰作战来对抗英国。在对抗法国、俄国、或者法俄联盟时,巡洋舰作战也不会成功,因为这两个国家的海外贸易量并不大,而他们的殖民地则拥有良好的防备。在提尔皮茨看来,与英国之间的海上交战,只可能发生在泰晤士河口与赫尔格兰岛之间的地方。

5、在提尔皮茨的领导下,德国海军获得了越来越多的战列舰、以及少量的装甲巡洋舰。根据Aidan Dodson(The Kaiser's Battlefleet: German Capital Ships 1871-1918)和Holger H. Herwig('Luxury' Fleet: The Imperial German Navy, 1888-1918, P.28 & P.43-44)的说法:

Large Cruiser A (to be Prinz Heinrich): A desire for economy resulted in a ship 1800t (17 per cent) smaller than the previous vessel, with half the main battery and two less secondary guns. Prinz Heinrich also marked a significant technical advance over the preceding Fürst Bismarck, and in many ways represented the prototype for the next generation of German capital ships, her protection-conception marking a major departure from earlier practice. The advent of the new Krupp cemented armour plate allowed more protective strength for a given thickness, the narrow waterline belt that had formed the basis of the side-armour of German ships since the Brandenburgs being now replaced by the concept of a belt that extended up to the main deck amidships.
海因里希王子号大型巡洋舰,在很大意义上,可以视为是后续的德国主力舰设计的母版。相比于先前的俾斯麦侯爵级,该舰的吨位下降了1,800吨(降低了17%),主炮和副炮的数量也分别减少了2门。但在防护设计上,该舰做出了显著的革新,因此与先前的设计出现了明显的区别:自勃兰登堡级战列舰起,德国海军的主力舰,会在水线处配备虽然厚重,但覆盖范围颇为窄小的装甲带。在克虏伯渗碳硬化装甲出现后,装甲的防护性能有了很大的提升,因此在海因里希王子号上,舷侧装甲带的高度得以大幅扩大,延伸到了主甲板区域。

The Wittelsbach Class: It was intended that the basic concept of the ships should not be changed from the Kaiser Friedrich IIIs...Much of Prinz Heinrich’s design, and especially her protective scheme, was carried over into the new Wittelsbach class of battleships.
维特尔斯巴赫级战列舰的整体设计,与先前的腓特烈三世级区别不大,但海因里希王子号大型巡洋舰的许多设计,尤其是其防护设计,在维特尔斯巴赫级战列舰上得到了延续。

The subsequent Braunschweig class...Changes in gunnery were introduced...it had proved possible to extend the rapid-fire principle to the 28cm gun, and hence the Braunschweig vessels received four of these guns...fourteen 17cm and eighteen 8.8cm guns...The last series of Pre-Dreadnought battleships, the Deutschland class...Guns and torpedo armament were not altered from the Braunschweig class - apart from adding two 8.8cm guns - but armour was increased.
再接下来,德国海军建造了布伦瑞克级战列舰。当时,他们已经能制造28cm口径的速射炮了,因此布伦瑞克级,就配备了4门28cm火炮,外加14门17cm火炮和18门8.8cm火炮。德国海军最后一级前无畏舰,德意志级,在火炮和鱼雷配置上与布伦瑞克级区别不大,仅仅是增加了2门8.8cm火炮,但在装甲防护方面则有所加强。

Four additional ships, Friedrich Carl, Prinz Adalbert, Roon, and Yorck, were added between 1900 and 1906...Owing to restrictions imposed upon armoured cruiser construction by the limited size of her docks and harbours, the Reich was never able to develop fully the armoured cruiser type on a level with France, Great Britain and Russia. It was only in 1906 that Germany was to build ships approximately equal to their British counterparts with the Scharnhorst class.
在海因里希王子号之后,德国海军在1900到1906年间,又继续建造了4艘大型巡洋舰,分别是腓特烈·卡尔号、阿达尔贝特王子号、罗恩号、约克号(她们的整体设计与海因里希王子号类似,但主炮由2门24cm改为4门21cm)。由于德国海军的装甲巡洋舰设计,受到了其船坞和港口设施的尺寸限制,因此在很长一段时间内,他们都无法拿出堪与英法俄的同类军舰相匹敌的设计。直到1906年时,德国海军才建造了能与英国同类军舰相媲美的沙恩霍斯特级。

The Scharnhorst Class marked a significant growth in size, fighting power and speed, the General Department having requested they could if necessary substitute for a damaged battleship in the battle line. Thus, although of very similar appearance to the Roons, the main battery was doubled in size by replacing the turreted 15cm guns of previous classes with casemated 21cm weapons, the secondary battery being reduced to six guns on the main deck. The tertiary battery was further strengthened, being upgraded to battleship scale. In addition, the belt was thickened by 50 per cent to 150mm, firing trials on the Meppen range having shown that the hitherto-used 100mm belt was insufficient to defeat medium calibre shells. Two boilers were added, horsepower being boosted by another 7000, giving Scharnhorst and Gneisenau and extra knot over the Roons.
相比于先前的德国大型巡洋舰,沙恩霍斯特级在舰体尺寸上有了大幅提升,因此获得了更高的航速和更强的战斗力。根据海军部总务局的要求,在有必要的情况下,这些军舰应能代替受损的战列舰,参与战列线决战。因此,尽管沙恩霍斯特级的外观,与罗恩级颇为类似,但其主炮火力得到了翻倍提升(8门21cm)、副炮则有所缩减(6门15cm)。此外,其反雷击火炮配置,也提升到了与战列舰相当的规格(18门8.8cm)。再者,其主装甲带的厚度增加了50%,达到了150mm。原因在于,根据在梅彭靶场开展的测试,此前的装甲巡洋舰配备的100mm装甲带,已不足以抵挡中口径炮弹了。在动力方面,相比于罗恩级,沙恩霍斯特级增加了2座锅炉,获得了额外的7,000马力,因此航速也提高了1节。

6、尽管提尔皮茨并不强调巡洋舰的价值,但在德国海军的小型巡洋舰的发展上,他起到了非常重要的作用。根据Holger H. Herwig('Luxury' Fleet: The Imperial German Navy, 1888-1918, P.27-28)以及Aidan Dodson和Dirk Nottelmann(The Kaiser's Cruisers, 1871-1918, The Development of the Small Cruiser in the Imperial German Navy)的说法:

The immediate pre-Tirpitz period brought a fundamental decision: the old division between "overseas" and "fleet" light cruisers was abandoned in favour of a uniform model designed for service with the fleet as well as abroad. The Gazelle class of light cruisers, planned in 1896, represented the initial synthesis of the "fleet cruiser" with the "overseas cruiser". The finished ships were attached first to the fleet and, as soon as they could be replaced by more modern vessels, released for overseas service with the Cruiser Squadron.
在提尔皮茨成为海军部国务秘书之前,德国海军的海外型小型巡洋舰和舰队型小型巡洋舰,被合并成了一种既能在海外服役,又能伴随舰队行动的小型巡洋舰。设计于1896年的瞪羚级小型巡洋舰,是这种融合式设计的最早的产物。在建成之后,这些军舰首先会加入舰队服役,随后在更新的军舰建成后,被派往海外的巡洋舰部队服役。

The definitive merging of the two types of cruising vessel came as the result of an internal paper prepared in June 1894 by Captain Alfred Tirpitz. The first and (probably) only visualisation of Tirpitz’s thoughts regarding an ideal III. class cruiser was drawn by the Kaiser during his annual summer cruise in Norwegian waters, which took place less than a month after the publication of the OKM paper.
这种融合式的巡洋舰设计,源自于提尔皮茨在1894年时撰写的备忘录。在这份备忘录提交之后的不到一个月内,德皇在当年夏季的挪威海域巡游过程中,首次画出了这种由提尔皮茨设想的理想型的小型巡洋舰。

It is only recently that it has become clear that the new type can be traced back to an explicit request by the Kaiser himself. He had urged Hollmann to have a vessel designed, ‘which, as much as feasible, will combine the features of station vessels with those of a useful scout for the battle fleet at home.
直到最近,我们才清楚,瞪羚级的设计,可以追溯至德皇给弗雷德里希·冯·霍尔曼(当时的海军部国务秘书)下达的一个明确的要求。前者要求后者,尽可能将海外型和舰队型小型巡洋舰的设计进行合并。

7、另外,为了满足镇压殖民地的需求,德国海军还需要建造炮舰。根据Holger H. Herwig的说法('Luxury' Fleet: The Imperial German Navy, 1888-1918, P.29):

The Reich also brought out modern gunboats. The famous "predator" class was built between 1897 and 1904 for service overseas. They were armed with two 10.5cm guns which proved to be inadequate. This class had a best speed of only fourteen knots.
在1897-1904年间,德国海军建造了一批现代化的炮舰:捕食者级。不过,这些军舰的战斗力很弱,仅配备有2门10.5cm火炮(或4门8.8cm火炮),且最大航速仅为14节。

8、在鱼雷艇领域,德国海军取得了不俗的成就。根据Holger H. Herwig的说法('Luxury' Fleet: The Imperial German Navy, 1888-1918, P.28):

Torpedo-boat development also flollrished during this period. Between 1890 and 1896 the Friedrich Schichau Company at Elbing near Danzig had attained a monopoly of torpedo-boat construction. Germania in 1897 and Vulcan in 1907 also entered the field; Blohm & Voss in Hamburg and Howaldt in Kiel added only a few units later on.
在这一时期,鱼雷艇也得到了蓬勃发展。在1890-96年间,但泽的希肖船厂垄断了鱼雷艇的建造。在1897年时,基尔的日耳曼尼亚船厂也开始建造鱼雷艇了。而斯德丁的伏尔铿船厂,则要到1907年起才开始建造鱼雷艇。另外,汉堡的布洛姆·福斯船厂和基尔的霍华德船厂,后来也建造过一些鱼雷艇。

9、至于后来闻名于世的德国潜艇,当时还尚未出现。根据Holger H. Herwig的说法('Luxury' Fleet: The Imperial German Navy, 1888-1918, P.29):

The first German submarine (U1) was not completed until 1906.
德国第1艘潜艇,U1号,要到1906年时才建成。

德国海军的岸防铁甲舰

下图中展示的,是弗里肖夫号岸防铁甲舰(属于齐格飞级)。岸防铁甲舰的吨位较小、造价较低,但却具备较强的战斗力,因此能够满足海军弱国的海防需求。



德国海军的战列舰

下图中展示的,是扎林根号战列舰(属于维特尔斯巴赫级)。进入1890年代后,德国海军不满足于只建造岸防铁甲舰了,因此开始建造战列舰。在提尔皮茨治下,战列舰一直是德国海军的舰队体系中的核心组成部分。



德国海军的防护巡洋舰

下图中展示的,是汉萨号防护巡洋舰(属于维多利亚·路易斯公主级)。由于德国海军的建造经费有限,因此他们所建造的大吨位的巡洋舰,是兼顾舰队作战与海外作战能力的。



德国海军的装甲巡洋舰

下图中展示的,是俾斯麦侯爵号装甲巡洋舰。进入1890年代后,各国海军陆续开始建造装甲巡洋舰,德国海军也不例外。这类大型巡洋舰,在战斗力上接近于战列舰,但同时又具备巡洋舰的高航速特征,是舰队体系中的重要组成部分。



德国海军的小型巡洋舰

下图中展示的,是瞪羚号小型巡洋舰(属于瞪羚级)。提尔皮茨是小型巡洋舰的倡导者,这种军舰能够承担侦察职能,同时还能用来对抗鱼雷艇,是舰队体系中的多面手。



德国海军的炮舰

下图中展示的,是美洲虎号炮舰(属于捕食者级)。炮舰的主要作用,是镇压殖民地。在大国对抗之时,这类军舰并无多少军事价值。



德国海军的鱼雷艇

下图中展示的,是S90级鱼雷艇。提尔皮茨最初就出身于鱼雷艇部队,他很清楚,鱼雷艇能够用来削弱敌方的战列舰队,从而提高德国海军在舰队决战中的胜算。因此,在德国海军的舰队体系中,鱼雷艇始终扮演着一个十分有必要的辅助性角色。



结论:在1890年代前后,德国海军开始了从近岸防御型海军向大洋决战型海军的转变过程。提尔皮茨并不是这种转变的发起人,但他无疑加速了这种转变过程。提尔皮茨之于威廉二世,就好比老毛奇之于威廉一世——老毛奇指挥的普鲁士陆军,为威廉一世带来了一系列的辉煌胜利,使其得以加冕为统一的德意志帝国的皇帝;而提尔皮茨,则为威廉二世打造了其梦寐以求的强大海军。



三、打造舰队的手段

在提尔皮茨的掌控下,德国海军的实力得到了快速提升,在不到10年的时间内,其舰队规模从世界排名第五或第六,跃升至仅次于英国的世界第二。那么问题来了,提尔皮茨为什么能在如此短的时间内,让德国海军的实力得到了飞跃式的提升呢?原因在于,他不仅仅是一名海军军官,还是一名精明的政客、优秀的公共关系专家、以及专业的管理人员。

1、通过舆论宣传,提尔皮茨在全国上下各行各业,发展出了许多的海军支持者。根据Holger H. Herwig的说法('Luxury' Fleet: The Imperial German Navy, 1888-1918, P.39-40):

It was one thing to develop a theoretical naval programme, but quite another to realize it. It was precisely in this area that Tirpitz made perhaps his greatest contribution. He started out by popularizing the idea of a German Navy with the masses in order to persuade the Reichstag to grant the necessary funds for naval construction.
在纸面上制定造舰计划是一回事,但将这个计划付诸实现又是另一回事了。提尔皮茨所起到的最大的贡献,在于将计划付诸实现。他所做的第一件事,是向民众宣传德国海军,从而说服议会为海军建设提供必要的资金。

Tirpitz changed the Marine-Rundschau from a technical journal into a popular magazine. The naval annual Nauticus was founded and a special News Bureau within the Navy Office influenced the press. Orders were placed for Mahan's Influence of Sea Power to be translated into German. The "bible of the Navy" was serialized in German journals, copies were placed on board every warship, and some 8,000 free copies were distributed by the Navy Office.
当时,有一本海军方面的技术期刊,叫做【海军评论】,而提尔皮茨则将其转变成了一本通俗杂志。在他影响下,又出现了一本叫做【鹦鹉螺】的海军年鉴。提尔皮茨管理的海军部,下辖有一个专门的新闻局,负责宣传工作。马汉的著作【海权对历史的影响】,被奉为海军的圣经,并翻译成了德语。这本书在德国期刊中进行了连载,海军部将本书刊印了约8,000份,并将其发到了每一艘德国军舰上。

Mass rallies in favour of naval expansion were organized throughout Germany. Political and industrial leaders were invited to attend naval reviews, officers courted the favour of Reichstag deputies, popular journals and books glorified naval history, and naval uniforms became the vogue for children, including the Kaiser's six sons. The German academic community also lent support to the naval initiative, roughly 270 "fleet" professors provided the theoretical underpinnings for "navalism" and Weltpolitik.
在全德国范围内,出现了各种支持海军建设的大规模游行;政治和工业界的领袖人物,收到了参与阅舰式的邀请;军官们试图得到议会议员们的青睐;通俗书刊大肆宣扬海军历史;海军制服则成为了孩子们的时装,连皇帝的六个儿子都穿上了这种服装;连学术界也不能免俗,他们同样对海军建设提供了支持,有270余位所谓的“舰队派“教授,为海军建设和所谓的世界政策(Weltpolitik)提供了理论依据。

Various political pressure groups in the Reich were also asked to endorse the naval programme. The Colonial League, with 20,000 members in 1897, distributed in one year alone 25,000 brochures and 7 million pamphlets on behalf of it. The Pan-German League also became a propaganda auxiliary. And in 1898 Krupp and Prince Wied founded the German Navy League (Flottenverein). The Navy League financed its own newspaper, Die Flotte, which soon had a circulation of 750,000. Its membership rose from 78,652 in 1898 to 1,108,106 in 1914. Krupp had earlier aided the naval cause by publishing a book entitled What has Parliament done for the Navy? - it contained numerous blank pages. The "Central Union of German Industrialists", federal princes, provincial governors, church organizations, and national women's groups carried Tirpitz's message to the remote corners of the land.
还有许多政治游说团体,也为海军建设进行了背书。例如,在1897年时,殖民协会分发了2.5万本宣传册和700万张宣传页(该协会当时有2万名成员)。泛德意志协会也在宣传中发挥了作用。在1898年时,克虏伯和维德亲王创立了德国海军协会,该协会有自己的报纸【海军报】,其发行量很快就达到了75万份,其会员数量则从7.8万名(1898年时),快速增加到了110.8万名(1914年时)。克虏伯公司还刊印了一本叫做【议会为海军做过什么?】的书刊,里面有许多的空白页(讽刺议会什么都没做)。还有许多其他的团体和个人,如工业家、王公贵族、行政长官、教会组织、甚至连妇女组织,都参与到了宣传工作中,将提尔皮茨的宣传词传播到了全国各地。

2、通过政治游说,提尔皮茨在政界争取到了许多盟友。根据Holger H. Herwig的说法('Luxury' Fleet: The Imperial German Navy, 1888-1918, P.41-42):

Tirpitz visited federal princes to gain their favour; he travelled to Friedrichsruh to court Bismarck; he received Reichstag deputies in his office and let them into armarments secrets; he dispatched officers to influence shipping and industrial magnates; and he invited the latter to dine in officers's Kasinos (messes) and to undertake cruises aboard new warships.
提尔皮茨拜访了许多王公贵族,以获取他们的青睐。例如,他曾前去拜访过俾斯麦。他还在其办公室,接见过许多议会成员,并向他们展示军备方面的机密。他还派遣过军官,去游说航运和工业巨头,并邀请他们在军官餐厅就餐,并搭乘新式军舰进行巡航。

These tactics were not without result. National Liberals, Free Conservatives, Agrarian, and Centre delegates were all too easily seduced by this propaganda. Aristocrats and Bürger were again asked to join forces in a loose Reichstag coalition ranging from the National Liberals to the Conservatives, in which the latter would agree to drop their opposition to the "hated fleet" and vote for naval construction in return for higher tariffs against foreign grain. The alliance proved workable: the Navy received Conservative support in 1898 and 1900; the Agrarians, in turn, received higher customs dues in 1902. Only the Social Democrats and Richter's Left Liberals remained immune to his charms.
这些策略取得了丰厚的成果。民族自由党(Nationalliberale Partei)、自由保守党(Freikonservative Partei)、土地联盟(Bund der Landwirte)、基督教中央党(Zentrum)等政治党派或团体,都被提尔皮茨给吸引住了。提尔皮茨建立起了一个包括从贵族到普通市民的各个阶层、囊括从民族自由党到保守派的各种派别的松散的政治联盟。在提尔皮茨的游说下,保守派放弃了反对海军建设的立场;作为回应,他们得到的好处,是对进口的谷物征收高额关税。这种合作的结果很成功,在1898年和1900年时,海军得到了保守派的支持;在1902年时,后者则得到了高关税政策。只有社会民主党和左翼自由派,选择不与提尔皮茨合作。

3、通过法律保障,提尔皮茨为德国海军的建设工作奠定了坚实的基础——在1898至1912年间,他运用了各种政治手段,在议会通过了2部舰队法及3个舰队法修正案。接下来,我们将会详细介绍这些舰队法及其修正案的具体情况。

1898年舰队法

1898年舰队法,将德国海军的目标规模设定为:19艘战列舰、8艘岸防铁甲舰、12艘大型巡洋舰、以及30艘小型巡洋舰。这里面,有12艘战列舰、8艘岸防铁甲舰、10艘大型巡洋舰、以及23艘小型巡洋舰,是当时已经建成或正在建造的(因此无需再得到议会的批准)。同时,1898年舰队法还规定,战列舰与岸防铁甲舰应在服役25年后由新舰替换,大型巡洋舰应在服役20年后由新舰替换,小型巡洋舰应在服役15年后由新舰替换。除了现有的军舰之外,基于1898年舰队法,需要新建造的军舰,包括7艘战列舰、2艘大型巡洋舰、以及7艘小型巡洋舰。

在建成之后,德国本土区域将部署1艘旗舰、2支战列舰中队(每支中队8艘战列舰)、2支岸防铁甲舰分队(每支分队4艘岸防铁甲舰)、6艘大型巡洋舰、以及16艘小型巡洋舰。在德国本土以外,则将部署3艘大型巡洋舰和10艘小型巡洋舰。另外,还有2艘战列舰、3艘大型巡洋舰、以及4艘小型巡洋舰,将作为预备役。

对于建设这支海军所需的财政费用,该法规定了限额——总费用不超过408,900,000马克,其中用于军舰建造和武器制造的费用不超过356,700,000马克,其他费用不超过52,200,000马克。









1900年舰队法

1900年舰队法,将德国海军的目标规模提升至:38艘战列舰、14艘大型巡洋舰、以及38艘小型巡洋舰。同时,1900年舰队法还规定,战列舰应在服役25年后由新舰替换,而巡洋舰则应在服役20年后由新舰替换。除了现有的军舰之外,基于1900年舰队法,需要新建造的军舰,包括17艘战列舰、10艘大型巡洋舰、以及29艘小型巡洋舰。

在建成之后,德国本土区域将部署2艘旗舰、4支战列舰中队(每支中队8艘战列舰)、8艘大型巡洋舰、以及24艘小型巡洋舰。在德国本土以外,则将部署3艘大型巡洋舰和10艘小型巡洋舰。另外,还有4艘战列舰、3艘大型巡洋舰、以及4艘小型巡洋舰,将作为预备役。

另外,1900年舰队法,还规定了每年需要新建的军舰数量:在1901-1917年间,每年需建造的战列舰数量是0/0/0/0/0/2/2/2/2/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/2艘,大型巡洋舰数量是1/1/1/0/0/0/0/0/0/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/0艘,小型巡洋舰数量是0/1/1/2/2/2/2/2/2/2/2/2/2/2/2/2/1艘。











1906年舰队法修正案

1906年舰队法修正案,在1900年舰队法的基础上,增加了6艘大型巡洋舰(海外部署增加5艘大型巡洋舰,预备役增加1艘大型巡洋舰),从而将目标规模提升至38艘战列舰、20艘大型巡洋舰、以及38艘小型巡洋舰。



1908年舰队法修正案

1908年舰队法修正案,在1906年舰队法修正案的基础上,将战列舰的替换年限缩短至20年(即战列舰、大型巡洋舰、小型巡洋舰的替换年限保持一致)。如此一来,尽管舰队总规模不变,但由于老旧战列舰替换变得更频繁了,因此整体舰龄会变得更小。

根据1908年舰队法修正案,在1908-1917年间,每年需建造的战列舰数量是3/3/3/2/1/1/1/1/1/1艘,大型巡洋舰数量是0/0/0/0/1/1/1/1/1/1艘,小型巡洋舰数量是2/2/2/2/2/2/2/2/2/1艘。





1912年舰队法修正案

1912年舰队法修正案,在1908年舰队法修正案的基础上,增加了3艘战列舰与2艘小型巡洋舰,从而将目标规模提升至41艘战列舰、20艘大型巡洋舰、以及40艘小型巡洋舰。

在建成之后,德国本土区域将部署1艘旗舰、5支战列舰中队(每支中队8艘战列舰)、12艘大型巡洋舰、以及30艘小型巡洋舰。在德国本土以外,则将部署8艘大型巡洋舰和10艘小型巡洋舰。







结论:通过本章内容,我们可以看出,提尔皮茨的德国海军之父的称号,是实至名归的。为了达成建设海军的目的,提尔皮茨与他的盟友们,使用了舆论宣传、政治游说、法律保障等多种手段,从而为海军建设争取到了广泛的支持。另一方面,在德国海军的崛起过程中,德皇威廉二世对海军建设的支持,也是不可或缺的因素。在德皇的支持和提尔皮茨的掌控下,德国海军逐渐被建设为一支主要由战列舰、大型巡洋舰、小型巡洋舰、以及鱼雷艇组成的,以舰队决战为主要目的的海上力量。基于2部舰队法及3个舰队法修正案,德国海军的目标规模,将达到41艘战列舰、20艘大型巡洋舰、以及40艘小型巡洋舰,且这些战列舰和巡洋舰都将在满20年舰龄后,被新舰替换。在这样大手笔的建设计划的加持下,德国海军很快就超越了俄国和法国,成为了舰队规模排名世界第二的海军强国。

中将

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 楼主| 发表于 2019-10-19 12:56 | 显示全部楼层
本帖最后由 seven_nana 于 2022-10-6 10:29 编辑

附录:威廉二世的军舰设计情节

作为一个国家的最高统治者,威廉二世对海军事务的热衷程度,在近现代史上是首屈一指的。这位皇帝,甚至会亲自绘制军舰的设计草图。

关于威廉二世所设计的军舰,有一个流传甚广的传闻:威廉二世设计了一艘军舰。他在设计书上写道:“这是我积多年研究,经过长期思考和精细工作的结果”。并请国际上著名的造船家对此设计做出鉴定。 过了几周,造船家送回其设计稿并写了下述意见:“陛下,您设计的这艘军舰是一艘威力无比、坚固异常和十分美丽的军舰,称得起空前绝后。它能开出前所未有的高速度,它的武器将是世上最强的。您设计的舰内设备,将使舰长到见习水手的全部乘员都会感到舒适无比。你这艘辉煌的战舰,看来只有一个缺点:那就是只要它一下水,就会立刻沉入海底,如同一只铅铸的鸭子一般”。

事实是否真的如此呢?根据现存可考证的资料,威廉二世至少有两幅设计草图传世。

威廉二世绘制的小型巡洋舰设计草图

下图中展示的,即是上文所说的,基于提尔皮茨的设想,由威廉二世绘制的小型巡洋舰的设计草图。该舰搭载有8门12cm火炮和8门5cm火炮,防护甲板厚度为25/50mm,最大航速为19.5节。



威廉二世绘制的快速战列舰设计草图

下图中展示的,是威廉二世在1905年时所设想的快速战列舰(详见下一章的附录部分),该舰搭载有6-8门28cm火炮和30门8.8cm火炮,主装甲带厚度为250mm,最大航速为22.5节。



结论:基于以上两型军舰的设计来看,在军舰设计方面,威廉二世是颇有想法的,并且具有一定的前瞻性。至少我们可以说,威廉二世的军舰设计能力,并不像传闻中的那般糟糕。

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